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Reverse Discrimination

The concept of reverse discrimination has at least two different, but related, meanings. In the broadest sense, it refers to discrimination against Whites or males in employment, education, or any other area of life. In its narrower sense, reverse discrimination refers to the negative impact Whites or males may experience because of affirmative action policies. Unfortunately, these two meanings are often conflated, which leads to a great deal of confusion and misinformation. This entry examines perceptions about the situation of Whites and males, contrasts them with the apparent realities, and looks at the underlying political and philosophical points of view.

Discrimination Perceived

Most people would agree that the term discrimination applies to a situation where a qualified White male is denied a promotion because a Black female supervisor is prejudiced against White men. However, what about a situation where a legal, court-ordered consent decree means that a qualified Hispanic with 2 years of experience will be promoted over an equally qualified White male with 3 years of experience. In this instance, the White male did not get the promotion because normal seniority criteria were modified. The hypothetical White male has less opportunity than he would have without affirmative action, but has he been discriminated against?

Conservative critics of affirmative action say “yes,” and they make extensive use of the concept of reverse discrimination. Political scientist Frederick Lynch has written extensively about what he believes to be the mistreatment of White men in the labor market because of affirmative action. Legal foundations such as the Center for Individual Rights have published pamphlets about problems with affirmative action in higher education and defended Whites who claim to be victims. Several Internet sites provide sounding boards for those who feel victimized. These affirmative action critics argue that reverse discrimination against Whites and men is a widespread and serious problem.

As a result of this public discussion, which is often aired in the mainstream media, there is a widespread belief that discrimination against Whites and males is a big problem in the United States. When asked broad questions like “Do unqualified minorities get hired over qualified Whites,” between two-thirds and three-quarters of White national samples tend to say “yes.” Similar findings occur when college admission is the subject of the question.

Actual Experience

Other evidence suggests that the empirical reality is quite different. When national samples of Whites are asked whether they personally have experienced the loss of a job, promotion, or college admission because of their race, only 2% to 13% say yes. General perceptions seem to be quite different than individual experience.

There have also been several studies of employment discrimination complaints submitted to the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) and of employment discrimination cases argued in front of the U.S. Court of Appeals. Less than 10% of the race-related EEOC complaints and court cases were filed by Whites; most were filed by Blacks and other people of color. Only 18% of the gender-related EEOC complaints and 4% of the court cases were filed by men; almost all were filed by women. These findings, along with the results of public opinion polls, would seem to indicate that it isn't common for Whites or men to believe that they have been discriminated against or to take legal action.

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