Racial Identity

Fundamental Concepts

Although most perspectives on race and ethnicity derive from sociology, anthropology, or history, racial identity, when considered fundamentally, is rooted in psychology: Theories of racial identity derive from social, developmental, and clinical psychology. However, proper consideration of racial identity requires understanding various conceptual and disciplinary perspectives. Racial groups themselves are products of social, historical, and political context, varying in their scope and definition by time and space across the world. Consequently, the meanings that individuals place on racial group identification also vary with context.

Some general trends are apparent: For example, racial identity is often more immediately salient for minority group members within a society. Nevertheless, the general, unifying themes in racial identity derive from psychosocial theories of identity development; the application of these theories to racial group membership requires greater specificity and differentiation.

It is also necessary to clarify the application of terms such as race and ethnicity, which have different meanings but are sometimes used interchangeably. As generally understood, the term race refers to categories derived from perceptions and social meanings related to observable physical characteristics. Ethnicity, on the other hand, corresponds to categorization based on cultural background and characteristics. Sometimes it is useful to distinguish between these two: for example, within U.S. society, African Americans and Afro-Caribbean immigrants may be classified within the same racial group but have different understandings of their ethnic backgrounds. Often, however, individuals define and understand their racial and ethnic identities in concert; thus, at times, it is also useful to combine the two. Whether racial and ethnic identity should be treated together or separately depends on the groups [Page 1106]and issues being considered and on the particular social and historical context. A thorough and nuanced analysis will invariably necessitate transitioning between these two modes. of one's identity; during this stage, many small or large identity crises are encountered. Finally, achievement denotes the growth and understanding that occur through exploration.

The Development of Identity Theories

Psychological theories of self and identity, generally considered, are a key starting point in understanding racial identity. In his 19th-century work on the self, Harvard psychologist William James introduced the distinction between the private self, which he described as the “I”—the inner, reflective part of one's psyche—and the public self, which he called the “me”—the social roles that one plays in society. The renowned African American scholar, W. E. B. Du Bois, was a student of James at Harvard and drew on these ideas with his notion of “double-consciousness”—the profound sense of ambivalence that Black Americans feel with respect to their experiences and history in the United States. Du Bois described double-consciousness most famously in his classic work, The Souls of Black Folk, and this, along with his later writings, was an important precursor to theories of racial identity and of race more generally.

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