Parenting

Dimensions of Parenting

Although parenting has been conceptualized in many ways and there is not always an agreement on how to define various dimensions, some consensus does exist on the general contours of parenting. Many researchers agree that parenting consists of three main roles: nurturer, teacher, and manager. How these roles are defined and operationalized, however, depends on many factors. Traditionally, parenting behaviors have been assessed by measures that are representative of middle-class families in the United States. Consequently, some parenting behaviors are probably not measured or, if so, are not measured well.

Much of the research that investigates parenting relies on schemes such as those developed by E. E. Maccoby and others that often distinguish between authoritative parenting (warm firm control) and authoritarian parenting (negative harsh control). Authoritative parenting is typically considered to be optimal. Psychologists such as Cynthia Garcia-Coll are beginning to examine how traditional theories of parenting and socialization “fit” when applied to research on immigrant families and families of color. It has been posited that the effect of parenting on child outcomes may differ across groups because parenting strategies are influenced by ethnic socioeconomic background and community characteristics. For example, Laurence Steinberg and Amanda S. Morris found that European American parents are more likely to engage in authoritative parenting emphasizing the growth of separation and autonomy, whereas Latino, Asian American, and African Americans are more likely to engage in authoritarian parenting with a greater emphasis on obedience and conformity.

Universal and Culturally Situated Behaviors

Researchers tend to agree that the domains of parenting are universal, meaning that many aspects of parenting are exhibited by parents in many societies. All [Page 1025]parents have ways of nurturing, teaching, and managing children. Variation exists, however, in how these behaviors are expressed, what behaviors are emphasized, and what the actual functions of certain behaviors are. Differences in parenting may be a factor of what is valued in a given culture. For example, according to Sara Harkness and Charles M. Super, parents in eastern Africa focus on developing their toddlers' motor skills; not surprisingly, their children's motor skills are more advanced than those of U.S. children.

Cross-cultural differences in parenting behaviors may also influence the actual meaning of certain behaviors by culture. For example, recent research examining parenting behaviors among immigrant groups in the United States has suggested that parenting typologies need to be expanded because the general authoritative and authoritarian parenting types do not transfer neatly in cross-cultural research. To illustrate, Nancy E. Hill and colleagues examined the relationship between harsh parenting and negative child outcomes in Mexican American and European American mothers and their children and found that, among Spanish-speaking parents, hostile control co-occurred with acceptance—a result that is generally inconsistent with the traditional European American model of parenting.

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