Marginalization

Marginalization is the singling out of a specific group on the basis of some social demographic characteristic that is negatively viewed by a dominant group or class who, through institutionalized and informal practices, exclude the unwanted from social, economic, and political realms of the larger society. During the colonial period, attributions of inferiority based on phenotype or the physical appearance of the Indigenous Peoples supported the manipulation of people of color for the economic and social benefit of European nation-states, which also profited greatly by the enslavement of African people. The parallel development of the notion of “whiteness” through such ideologies as Social Darwinism allowed Europeans to legitimize beliefs about phenotype as a rationale for restricting the freedom of those identified as non-White throughout the world. This entry looks briefly at some historical and contemporary examples of marginalization.

U.S immigration history provides an example of how phenotype, culture, and historical context affect rates of exclusion. Rates of assimilation for contemporary immigrants underscore the racial, social, and economic differences between late-19th- and early-20th-century European immigrants and post-1965 Asian, Latino, and West Indian immigrants. Although Jews, Italians, and Irish were initially discriminated against, these early immigrants and their successive generations were able to advance due to social and economic opportunities in the industrial sector, as well as through the establishment of ethnic enclaves. In addition, these European immigrants were able to become “White,” allowing for many to assimilate fully into society.

In contrast, post-1965 U.S. immigrants have often been non-Whites who come into a society where they may face discrimination based upon their physical appearance, although public debates on the issue are phrased in terms of issues relating to skills, education, and English literacy. Even second-generation immigrants from this cadre may have become marginalized on the basis of skin color, lack of social resources within their families, and their proximity to impoverished urban neighborhoods.

Marginalization in European countries, such as Italy and Spain, is sanctioned through laws and policies that prohibit the inclusion of immigrant workers, keeping them marginalized as a ready pool of labor for low-wage positions that natives will not perform. These immigrants (Asian, Latin American, and sub-Saharan African) in Europe are often denied permanent residence and cannot become full citizens. The construction of the immigrant as the “other” in Europe and the marginalization of immigrants in the United States keep these populations on the fringes of society. Immigration globally often serves to benefit the political and economic interests of the host country, while emigrants are kept from mobility.

[Page 872]Issues of marginalization in U.S. society are also evident in the legal system. Such political campaigns as the “war on drugs” have had a grossly negative impact on people of color in the United States. The rate of incarceration for African American minority populations in the United States is generally higher than that for Whites. Such differences are often attributed to the greater severity of criminal histories and racial bias in prosecution and sentencing, especially for drug sentences. Such racial bias in the U.S. criminal justice system is evident in David Jacobs and Jason Carmichael's analysis of death penalty sentencing. They discovered that those states with the greatest economic inequality and the largest African American populations retained the use of the death penalty. Such racial disparities highlight how non-Whites experience greater likelihood of loss of freedom. The removal from society or punishment of certain groups based upon phenotype is a common occurrence cross-nationally: For example, race has been correlated with higher incarceration rates of Aboriginals in Australia.

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