Labeling

Definition

According to labeling, a child who misbehaves might be considered and treated as delinquent if she or he comes from the “wrong kind of family,” whereas another child who commits the same sort of misbehavior might be given another chance before being punished if she or he comes from a middle-class family. Using this formulation, observers of racial/ethnic relations observe that the behavior of members of different groups is labeled depending on the relative power that these groups are able to exert in society. For example, in the scrutiny of the media in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina in 2005, many contended that Black people seen taking items from abandoned stores were labeled by reporters as “looters,” whereas Whites engaged in the same apparent behavior were seen as “survivors” or “scavengers.”

The labeling perspective directs attention to the role that negative stereotypes play in race and ethnicity. Stereotypes are unreliable generalizations about all members of a group that do not take individual differences into account. The “warrior” image of Native American (American Indian) people is perpetuated by the frequent use of tribal names or even terms such as Indians and Redskins as sports team mascots.

However, this labeling is not limited to racial/ethnic groups. For instance, age can be used to exclude a person from an activity in which he or she is qualified to engage. Groups are subjected to stereotypes and discrimination in such a way that their treatment resembles that of social minorities. Social prejudice exists toward ex-convicts, gamblers, alcoholics, lesbians, gays, prostitutes, people with AIDS, and people with disabilities, to name a few.

Labeling can also be positive, as in the model minority notion that often characterizes Asian Americans as being very successful and intelligent and, significantly, as not causing trouble or asking for any special allowances. Even positive labeling has negative consequences, for in this case some Asian American adolescents may feel undue pressure to succeed by society's standards and may see failure even in modest accomplishments. Furthermore, by relishing the alleged success of the model minority, society seems to reassure itself that racism is disappearing if not gone entirely.

Labeling points out that stereotypes, when applied by people in power, can have negative consequences for people or groups identified falsely. A crucial aspect of the relationship between dominant and subordinate groups is the prerogative of the dominant group to define society's values. U.S. sociologist William I. Thomas, an early critic of racial and gender discrimination, saw that the “definition of the situation” could mold the personality of the individual. In other words, Thomas observed that people respond not only to the [Page 822]objective features of a situation (or person) but also to the meaning these features have for them. So, for example, someone out walking alone who sees a young Black man approaching may perceive the situation differently if the oncoming person were an older woman. In this manner, people can create false images or stereotypes that become real in their social consequences.

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