Intergroup Relations, Surveying

The Survey Process

TAP-I, carried out in 1993 by Louis Harris and Associates, interviewed 2,755 adults living in the United States. TAP-II, conducted in 2000 by Princeton Survey Research Associates, interviewed 2,584 U.S. adults. Oversamples of Blacks, Hispanics, and Asians were drawn in TAP-II, yielding interviews with 995 non-Hispanic Whites, 709 non-Hispanic Blacks, 572 Hispanics (who can be of any race), 198 Asians, and 100 of other or mixed races. TAP-III, conducted in 2005 by Princeton Survey Research Associates, surveyed 2,558 adult U.S. residents. As in 2000, there were oversamples of Asians, Blacks, and Hispanics. Of the total sample, 942 were non-Hispanic Whites, 677 non-Hispanic Blacks, 630 Hispanics, 200 Asians, and 109 of other and mixed races.

The TAP surveys have greater depth and wider coverage than most studies of intergroup relations. First, by repeating many items over time, the TAP surveys examine changes in intergroup relations. Second, by oversampling major minority groups, they are able to consider not only what the majority thinks of various minorities, but also how the minorities view both the majority and each other. Third, the TAP surveys are particularly comprehensive in the wide range of groups covered. These include races and ethnicities, which form the core of most studies of intergroup relations, and religions, socioeconomic groups, age groups, sexual orientations, and gender. Finally, the surveys cover many topics, including both attitudes, such as judgments on group influence, intergroup harmony, closeness, and level of discrimination, and behaviors such as intergroup contact and personal experiences of discrimination.

Survey Results

Among key results from the TAP surveys are the following: The public realizes that intergroup relations need much improvement. A small plurality (58%) say they are not satisfied with the current state of intergroup relations, and 75% of participants acknowledge that the country as a whole has serious group tensions. Although most people see intergroup conflict as a problem, most do not view it as a top priority; rather, they believe the problem largely occurs elsewhere in the country and is not part of their daily lives.

The inventories of social groups in general indicate that many are neither thought of nor treated equally. First, there is a definite pecking order in social groups; for example, many people say they are unfamiliar with Muslims and atheists or that they don't feel close to other groups, such as gays and lesbians, atheists, and Muslims. Only 10% to 12% of U.S. residents felt close or very close to Muslims and atheists. Second, most U.S. residents acknowledge that all groups except Whites suffer a great deal or some discrimination; some, such as Muslims, gays and Lesbians, and the poor, are viewed as especially subject to discrimination. Third, a plurality believes that American Indians, Blacks, the elderly, Hispanics, women, and the disabled have less influence than they should have. Fourth, although intergroup contact is high for many groups, a few groups, such as Muslims, atheists, and American Indians, have rather limited contact with other U.S. residents. Finally, intergroup relations go well beyond race relations. Although races and ethnicities are important groups, they are only one set of groups along with social classes, genders, age groups, and others that make up U.S. society.

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