Globalization

Early Trade and Empires

Trade between city-states and ancient empires was commonplace, albeit geographically limited. During the Early Bronze Age (ca. 3500–2000 BC), the Akkadian Empire dominated Mesopotamia (parts of modern Syria, Iraq, Turkey, and Iran) and engaged in regional trade with nations around the Persian Gulf. Much later, the Mongolian Empire (1206–1405) became the largest contiguous empire in human history. Beginning under Timuchin, or Genghis Khan, and then under later Khans (rulers), the Mongolians unified China and much of Central Asia, extending their empire westward to Europe and southward to the Middle East. They established intercontinental trade routes, which spread cultural influences, goods, and technologies and developed new ties among conquered nations.

Legacies of the Age of Enlightenment

Most scholars of modern globalization, however, see its roots in the expansion of European power through colonization during the 16th century and in ideological revolutions during the Ages of Reason and Enlightenment (17th and 18th centuries). European colonization of the Americas, Africa, and Asia generated global ties among economic markets and helped European cities rise to be capitals of global empires. A period of increased international migration and exchange ensued. Economic, political, and religious conflicts among European power centers eventually led to a series of wars and later to the Peace of Westphalia (1648), which established the fundamental ideologies of the modern nation-state—sovereignty and the right of political self-determination, equality between states, and nonintervention in the internal affairs of other states. These principles became the building blocks of modern nations and international relations and remain integral elements of today's political globalization.

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