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Declarative/Procedural Model of Language

The basic premise of the declarative/procedural (DP) model or theory is that language critically depends on two long-term memory systems in the brain: declarative and procedural memory. Perhaps most importantly, because the computational, anatomical, physiological, molecular, and genetic substrates of these systems are relatively well studied in both animals and humans, this theoretical approach generates a wide range of well-motivated, specific, and testable predictions about the neurocognition of language that one might have no reason to make based on the study of language alone.

This entry summarizes the two memory systems and their interactions, presents the basic predictions of the model, provides an overview of the evidence, and finally discusses implications and future directions.

The Two Memory Systems

Declarative Memory

This system underlies the learning, representation, and use of knowledge about facts and events, such as the fact that Paris is the capital of France or that you had ravioli for dinner last night. The system may be specialized for learning arbitrary bits of information and associating them together. Knowledge in this system is learned rapidly and is at least partly, though not completely, explicit—that is, available to conscious awareness.

The hippocampus and other medial temporal lobe structures learn and consolidate new knowledge, which eventually depends largely on neocortical regions, particularly in the temporal lobes. Other brain structures play a role in declarative memory as well, including a region in frontal neocortex corresponding to Brodmann's areas (BAs) 45 and 47 (within and near classical Broca's area) that underlies the selection or retrieval of declarative memories. Note that for both declarative and procedural memory, the DP model refers to the entire neurocognitive system involved in the learning, representation, and processing of the relevant knowledge, not just to those parts underlying learning and consolidating new knowledge.

The molecular basis of declarative memory is beginning to be understood. Declarative memory is affected by estrogen (higher levels improve it in women, men, and rodents) and is modulated by the genes for at least two proteins, BDNF (brain derived neurotrophic factor) and APOE (Apolipoprotein E). Other factors also affect it, including sex (females tend to have an advantage at declarative memory over males), sleep (memory consolidation is improved by sleep), and age (declarative memory improves during childhood, plateaus in adolescence and early adulthood, and then declines).

Procedural Memory

This system underlies the implicit (nonconscious) learning of new, as well as the control of already learned, perceptual-motor, and cognitive skills and habits, such as typing, riding a bicycle, or video game playing. It may be specialized, at least in part, for sequences and rules. Learning in the system requires extended practice, though it seems to result in more rapid and automatic processing of skills and knowledge than does learning in declarative memory. Note that the term procedural memory is used by the DP model to refer only to one implicit nondeclarative memory system, not to all such systems.

The procedural memory system is composed of a network of interconnected brain structures rooted in frontal/basal ganglia circuits, including premotor cortex and BA 44 in Broca's area in frontal cortex. Although procedural memory is generally less well understood than declarative memory, evidence suggests that the neurotransmitter dopamine plays an important role in this system, as do the genes for some proteins (e.g., for the proteins FOXP2 and DARPP-32). Other factors may also affect procedural memory, including age (unlike declarative memory, procedural memory seems to be established early in life, after which learning and consolidation in this system may decline).

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