Cognitive Dissonance

Cognitive dissonance theory originally predicted that when an individual has in mind two or more elements of knowledge that are relevant to each other (and important) but inconsistent with one another, he or she will experience a state of psychological discomfort, which is referred to as dissonance. Lying to a friend is just one of many examples of a situation that might create dissonance. Thus, the theory is concerned with how perception and cognition influence and are influenced by motivation and emotion. Over the past 50 years, hundreds of experiments have tested dissonance processes, and research on the theory continues to this day. For the most part, these experiments have explored the ways that the experience of cognitive dissonance causes attitude and behavior changes, although the theory's reach is much broader. This entry reviews the original theory of cognitive dissonance and the experimental methods used to test it; discusses revisions to the original theory; and surveys recent research on neural circuits involved in dissonance processes, cultural differences in dissonance processes, neural network models, and nonhuman animal responses to dissonance.

The theory's long and continuing impact probably resulted for several reasons: The theory is stated abstractly, can be applied to a wide array of issues, and deals with the interaction of cognition, motivation, and affect. Moreover, the theory has generated research that suggested ways of inducing lasting attitude, belief, and behavior change. For example, dissonance research has demonstrated that dissonance processes can reduce prejudice, increase water conservation, increase the purchasing of condoms, reduce hunger and thirst, and reduce pain. In addition, dissonance processes can lead to changes in attitudes toward a variety of objects and issues, such as boring tasks, boring reading passages, delicious chocolate, eating grasshoppers, bitter beverages made with vinegar, increasing tuition at one's university, and mandatory comprehensive final exams.