Analogical Mapping and Reasoning

Harold Pashler

doi:10.4135/9781452257044

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Analogical Mapping and Reasoning

Edited by:
Harold Pashler
In:Encyclopedia of the Mind
Chapter DOI:https://doi.org/10.4135/9781452257044.n9
Subject:Linguistics (general), Cognitive Psychology (general)
Keywords:knowledge; maps

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Reasoning by analogy is regarded as one of the most sophisticated aspects of abstract thinking. Analogies are systematic matches between two separate areas of knowledge that are based on common relationships shared by the two knowledge areas. For example, researcher Dedre Gentner describes a scientific analogy in which the structure of an atom can be better understood if one understands how it relates to aspects of the solar system. In this case, the nucleus of the atom can be mapped onto the sun, as a central object, and the electrons can be mapped onto the planets, as orbiting satellite objects. Analogies have been used to generate new knowledge and understand novel situations based on what is known about past situations. Successful use of an analogy requires several steps. These steps include retrieving a source analog (the area of knowledge that is known), mapping this onto a target analog (the new area of knowledge), and inferring new information about the target analog based on what is known about the source analog. There are various special requirements, called constraints, which must be placed on analogies in order for them to be used successfully. Several researchers have developed computational models to better understand analogical mapping and inference processes. Recent research has also focused on understanding how analogical thinking operates in the human brain.

Steps in Using an Analogy

Analogies range from relatively simple four-term cases (of the form A is to B as C is to D) to very complex analogies, such as those about political strategies, historical periods, or wars. Regardless of the complexity of the analogy, there are three steps that must occur: retrieval, mapping, and inference.

Analogical Retrieval

Retrieval of a source analog is the first step necessary to make use of prior information in an analogy. This step occurs when an individual encounters a new situation and wishes to predict unknown information about how it behaves or operates. The new situation may be similar to some event or situation that has been encountered and understood previously. The ability to retrieve or access a relevant prior situation, or source analog, from memory is determined primarily by its similarity to the new situation, the target analog. For successful retrieval, the basis for the similarity should be relational, meaning that relationships among elements should be similar across the situations. This can be contrasted with featural similarity, in which the situations look [Page 26]perceptually similar but operate differently at a relational level. Featural similarity can be distracting when one attempts to retrieve a source analog, as possible source analogs may initially appear appropriate but ultimately, on closer inspection, share little relational similarity.