Stigma and Stigma Management

Background and Characteristics of Stigma and Stigmatization

In ancient Greece, the word stigma referred to the branding of slaves. However, in English, it refers to the rejection of an individual, or even entire groups of people, for various reasons. For example, for two millennia, Jewish individuals residing in Europe, who were the minority among a majority population of Christians, were stigmatized as outsiders. In a similar fashion, individuals in the United States today, such as the mentally ill, the physically disfigured, and criminal offenders, are commonly labeled as deviant, as are others who deviate from the mainstream norms and expectations of a cultural or societal group.

Stigmatization of individuals deviating from the social norms of a group, according to the sociologist Émile Durkheim, functions to facilitate group solidarity. Those individuals who successfully comply with the expected behavior of the group form stronger bonds with each other while rejecting those who fail to follow the social code. This phenomenon can be illustrated by the “witch-hunt” in Massachusetts in the 17th century. Individuals labeled as practitioners of witchcraft looked or acted in ways that did not adhere to mainstream social conventions. Once an individual was considered to be a witch, as a result of his or her peculiar appearance or unusual behavior, others associated with or supportive of such an individual were commonly viewed with similar suspicion and subsequently accused of witchcraft. Those individuals who did not participate in the labeling of others as witches risked becoming targets of accusations themselves, further encouraging individuals to unite against alleged witches. Individuals who appear or behave differently are often labeled as outsiders or deviants or discredited in society. In this way, deviance can be created by societal expectations.

Stigma may be situational or temporal in nature. Stigma may also be attached to certain behaviors under some circumstances and not others. For example, there is often a stigma attached to expressing one's anguish and distress at the workplace; however, it is widely acceptable to show such emotion at a funeral. Stigmas of a temporal nature are those that change over time. For example, in 1950, women occupied a much different position in society. A stigma was commonly attached to women who worked outside the home. This stigma, though, has largely diminished in recent times.

An individual who is stigmatized is labeled as deviant and undesirable. According to Goffman, a stigma fundamentally illustrates a discrepancy between how an individual identifies himself or herself and how society perceives and reacts to that individual. While an individual may be perceived as deviant, dangerous, or undesirable by others, that individual likely has a very different, most likely more positive, perception of himself or herself. For those stigmatized individuals, then, there is a divergence between how they are actually seen externally and how one believes they are seen. For example, physically disfigured individuals are often stigmatized by mainstream society, but these individuals likely do not share similar negative views of themselves.

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