Media Effects

Scholarly research on the effects of traditional mass media often reaches two conclusions: Many are active consumers of media, but this does not usually result in a dependency so complete as to make viewers automatically accept whatever messages they receive. To explain media effects, a rejected model is explained and more recent models are then analyzed.

Based on the work of Claude E. Shannon and Warren Weaver in 1949, one early model of communication was known as the “hypodermic” or “magic bullet” model. This model assumes a unidirectional flow of messages: One party sends a message, the next party receives it, and the process is then complete. If true, having viewed content would lead audience members to behave in a predictable manner. However, several problems are associated with this theory. First, the proliferation of media outlets and the option of turning the television off make focusing audience attention on a single message exceedingly difficult. Second, this theory does not account for the tendency of audience members to respond to messages based on existing beliefs and values. Third, contemporary models of communication provide for messages flowing in both directions.

Another model of media effects is explained by the agenda-setting theory of Maxwell E. McCombs and Donald L. Shaw. That theory is reviewed separately, although a brief summary is helpful here. Their original study was published in 1972 and noted that there was no conclusive evidence that media changed voter attitudes during a political campaign. However, the amount of emphasis media channels placed on a given issue did help drive what issues voters learned about. The common paraphrase of this model is that mass media sources could not tell people what to think, but those outlets were very good at telling people what to think about.

Media dependency theory may help explain why media can't unilaterally change opinions but can still help determine what issues are on the public agenda. Developed by Sandra Ball-Rokeach and Melvin DeFleur (1976), media dependency theory explains the growth of the media as well as the increased reliance many individuals have on various mass media forms. This theory holds that reliance on media is linked to the three factors of media, audience, and society. In this case, media refers to the number and type of information outlets that are available. Radio, television, print news sources, and social media are all viable ways in which people can receive information. This makes the task of selecting a medium more difficult, because audience members have many alternatives to which they might turn. At the same time, the sheer number of media options makes it more [Page 552]likely that there is some media option that will appeal to an individual audience member.

Audience refers to the degree to which a person or group of people depend on various media forms for information. Some audiences have a greater need or perceived need for information, and each audience will have different preferences about the precise forum from which they prefer to receive information.

Finally, society refers to all of the social factors that surround a need for information. When a nation is at war, its citizens are likely to have a greater perceived need for information than when the leading news stories are about more limited issues. Additionally, a person's place within a social structure will affect the need to access information. Together, these three factors indicate that the more someone relies on a particular form of media, the more that media outlet will influence the person's thoughts, feelings, and actions. People will rely more on media when their existing social networks do not fulfill all of their needs.

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