1619: A group of 20 Africans are brought to Jamestown, Virginia, making them the first Africans in the Western Hemisphere.

1657: One of the first self-help groups in colonial America, the Scots Charitable Society of Boston, is founded by 27 individuals; by 1690, it has 180 members.

1775: The first abolitionist society in the United States, the Pennsylvania Society for the Abolition of Slavery, is founded.

1833: Oberlin College, in Oberlin, Ohio, becomes the first coeducational college in the United States, allowing men and women to study together.

1848: As part of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo at the conclusion of the Mexican American War, thousands of Mexicans become Mexican American citizens of the United States.

1849: In Roberts v. City of Boston, the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court rules that racial segregation in the public school system is permissible.

1849: In Tuolumne County, California, the first anti-Chinese violence recorded in the United States occurs as about 60 Chinese miners are chased out of a mining camp; similar anti-Chinese actions follow in other mining camps.

1850: California enacts a tax on foreign miners, aimed at limiting competition following the migration of large numbers of people following discovery of gold at Sutter's Mill; the new law first applies primarily to Mexicans, but later the Chinese become the focus of the most enforcement.

1850–80: The Chinese population of the United States increases from 7,520 to 105,465.

1851: Harriet Beecher Stowe publishes Uncle Tom's Cabin, a novel denouncing the evils of slavery that was influential in bringing more people to the abolitionist cause.

1863: The Emancipation Proclamation declares that slaves in Confederate states are free, although in practice they will not be freed until the Civil War ends in 1865.

1864: The Children's Aid Society, led by Charles Loring Brace, begins putting orphans, and children whose parents are willing to give them up, on “orphan trains,” which will take them from New York City to small towns and rural areas that are believed to provide a better atmosphere in which to grow up.

[Page xxxviii]1866: The Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution is ratified, giving former slaves equal protection and rights under the law, including, for men, the right to vote.

1868: The American Missionary Association founds the Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute, a school headed by General Samuel Chapman Armstrong to educate African Americans in the manual trades; the first Native Americans are admitted to the school in 1878.

1869: The first Charity Organization Society in the United States is founded in Buffalo, New York, modeled on a similar organization in London; by 1912, there will be 154 charity organization societies in the United States.

1870: The U.S. Census shows that almost all (96 percent) of foreign-born residents came from Scandinavia, the British Isles, and other countries in northern Europe.

1870: The first federal appropriations are made to support schools specifically for Native American children, and by 1899, almost 20,000 Native American children are being educated in 148 boarding schools and 225 Day schools.

1870s: The U.S. Bureau of Indian Affairs begins establishing boarding schools for Native American children, in the belief that such schools will be more efficient in assimilating the children to the dominant American culture and separating them from the culture of their families.

1874: In New York City, Henry Bergh, the leader of the local chapter of the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, intervenes to remove a young girl, Mary Ellen Wilson, from her abusive caregivers; this case leads to the establishment of the New York Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children.

1874: Founding of the Chautauqua Movement by John H. Vincent and Lew Miller; originally an outgrowth of a summer Bible camp in western New York, the Chautauqua Movement will grow to include correspondence courses, touring exhibitions, and reading circles.

1879: Captain Richard Pratt obtains support to open a school for Native Americans, the Carlisle Indian Industrial School, in Carlisle, Pennsylvania; the school is financially supported by Congress and continues in operation until 1918, enrolling over 1,000 students in its peak years.

1879: The German Protestant Orphan Asylum Association is founded in Washington, D.C., to assist orphans and half orphans of German descent.

1880s–1924: The first major wave of immigration to the United States of people from Arab-speaking countries, Many of whom are Christians from what is now Syria, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, and Palestine. This first wave of immigration ends with the passage of the National Origins Act.

1881: Spelman College is founded in Atlanta as the Atlanta Baptist Female Seminary to educate African American women who had been slaves, and to prepare women to serve as good homemakers and mothers, as well as educating them to be teachers and missionaries.

1882: The Chinese Exclusion Act restricts Chinese citizens from immigrating to the United States for 10 years; it is renewed and extended Many times.

1883: Connecticut makes it illegal to create a boarding school for African American students without obtaining the permission of the civil authorities of the town in which the school is located. This so-called Black Law is aimed at a girl's school run by the abolitionist Prudence Crandall in Canterbury, Connecticut, which accepted both white and African American students.

1887: Under the Dawes Severalty Act, Native Americans can become voting citizens if they become farmers and live apart from other members of their tribe, and shares of reservation land are allocated to families and individuals. Both measures are aimed at destroying the group identity of Native Americans, dispersing them across the country, and breaking the power of the tribe as the key social organization for Native Americans.

[Page xxxix]1889: Jane Addams founds Hull House, a social settlement house, in Chicago; Addams is involved in a Protestant evangelical church, but sees Hull House as an alternative to traditional churches because it does not divide people based on their religion.

1890: The U.S. Census reveals that 21 percent of European immigrants to the United States are from southern and eastern Europe, an increase from the 5.4 percent found in the 1880 census, but fewer than the 49 percent in the 1900 census.

1891: The U.S. federal immigration bureau has only 28 staff members, a number that will increase by 4,200 percent to 1,200 by 1906.

1893: Hallie Q. Brown founds the Colored Woman's League, a self-help organization for African American women; in 1896, the league joins with the National Federation of Afro-American Women to form the National Association of Colored Women.

1893: The National Council of Jewish Women is founded in Chicago to address the needs of female Jewish immigrants.

1895: In Boston, the infant mortality rate is 216 per 1,000 live births, an extremely high rate attributed in part to poor living conditions in the poor and crowded areas of the city.

1895: The Eight Ward Settlement House is established in Philadelphia specifically to assist African Americans.

1896: The U.S. Supreme Court declares in Pless v. Fergusony that states can require public facilities to be segregated by race, as long as the facilities provided to each race are equal.

1896: The National Association of Colored Women (NACW) is formed by merging the Colored Women's Clubs and the National Federation of Afro-American Women; the NACW will hold its first convention in 1897, and biennially thereafter.

1898: Mary Richmond founds the first professional training program for social workers.

1898: Victoria Earle Matthews establishes the White Rose Mission in New York City to serve the needs of the African American community; it continues in operation until the 1960s.

1899: In Colorado and Illinois, legislation is passed to create the first juvenile courts, a reform effort based on the realization that juveniles in trouble with the law might be better served outside the adult court system.

1900: Thirty-three U.S. cities have populations of 100,000 or more, a substantial increase from 1860, when only eight cities had populations of 100,000 or more.

1900: The U.S. Census includes only two categories for race: white and colored, with the latter category including Native Americans and Asians. About 88 percent of the U.S. population is classified as white, with most of the rest (11 percent) made up of African Americans.

1900s: The first wave of Korean immigration to the United States; most of these immigrants are agricultural laborers, picture brides, students, or political refugees.

1902: John D. Rockefeller creates the General Education Board (GEB), a philanthropic organization designed to improve education in the south without discrimination among students on the basis of race, gender, or religion; the GEB is chartered by Congress in 1903.

1902: Texas adopts a poll tax to discourage Mexican Americans from voting.

1903: The Pensionado Act of 1903 creates a program providing funds to enable Filipino students to study in the United States as a means of fostering goodwill between the United States and the Philippines, and providing impetus for the Philippines to seek its own independence; the program continues until 1928.

1908: Colonel Allen Allensworth founds the town of Allensworth, California; the town, whose population was entirely African American, remains in existence until 1930.

[Page xl]1908: Berea College, in Berea, Kentucky, is convicted of violating a state law by accepting both white and black students; the decision is upheld by both the Kentucky State Supreme Court and the U.S. Supreme Court.

1908: Israel Zangwill's play The Melting Pot puts forth the concept that immigrants to the United States, no matter their race or geographic origin, will all unite to form a new type of person—the American—and a new nation.

1909: W. E. B. Du Bois founds the National Association for the Advancement for Colored People (NAACP); the organization grew out of the Negro National Committee, adopting the NAACP name in 1910.

1911: The Phelps Stokes Fund is created by the will of Caroline Phelps Stokes in order to offer improved educational opportunities to the poor as well as African Americans, Africans, and Native Americans.

1913: California passes the Alien Land Act, prohibiting Japanese individuals from purchasing land or allowing children to inherit land already owned; Japanese individuals are allowed to lease land for three years.

1915: The NAACP pickets showings of D. W. Griffith's feature film Birth of a Nation, which glorifies the Ku Klux Klan and presents African Americans in extremely stereotypical fashion.

1915: American educator Abraham Flexner declares, in a speech at the National Conference of Charities and Corrections, that social work is not a profession.

1917: The Jones-Shafroth Act makes all Puerto Ricans U.S. citizens and creates a senate in Puerto Rico.

1917: Race riots, aimed at African American residents, break out in East St. Louis, Illinois, and Many other U.S. cities, including Chicago; a second wave of brutal mob violence will sweep Many American cities in 1919.

1917: In Social Diagnosis, M. E. Richmond describes alcoholism as a disease, an opinion that is later adopted in medicine and social work.

1917–20: Hundreds of thousands of African Americans move from the south to the cities of the north, in part to take advantage of jobs available in war industries.

1919: The Jamaican-born African American leader Marcus Garvey founds the Black Star Line, a shipping line intended to transport African Americans back to Africa.

1919: A group of white men found the Commission on Interracial Cooperation in Atlanta, aiming to bring together African American and white leaders and to defuse tensions caused by the return of African American soldiers from World War I; in 1920, the commission begins involving women as well and holds its first interracial women's conference in Memphis in October 1920.

1919: Passage of the Volstead Act, a federal law that enables implementation of the Eighteenth Amendment to the Constitution, which prohibits the production and consumption of alcohol; the Volstead Act is repealed in 1933.

1920: On August 26, the Nineteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution is ratified, giving women the right to vote; this Day is celebrated around the country as Equality Day.

1920: About 1 percent of the population of Kansas is Mexican American; the 13,770 Mexican Americans in the state represent a substantial increase from the 71 recorded in 1900, and the 8,429 in 1910.

1921: The Quota Act imposes a 3 percent quota on the number of people immigrating from a given country who were in the United States in 1910. This quota is changed in 1924 to 2 percent of the population in the country in 1890, a change that favors northern European individuals as they were heavily represented among the immigrants in 1890.

1923: The U.S. Supreme Court in Meyer v. Nebraska overturns a Nebraska law banning the [Page xli]teaching of foreign languages to students below the eighth grade.

1925: The Neighborhood House, a settlement house in Gary, Indiana, votes to begin serving Mexican Americans and begins offering sermons in Spanish.

1927: In Farrington v. Tokushige, the U.S. Supreme Court rules that parents have the right to send their children to Japanese-language schools.

1927: In Gong Lum v. Rice, the U.S. Supreme Court rules that a Mississippi school district may prohibit Chinese students from attending public schools for white children.

1929: The League of Latin American Citizens (LULAC) is founded in Corpus Christi, Texas, to improve the conditions of Latinos in the United States, including education, economic conditions, and health and well-being.

1929–34: An estimated 400,000 persons of

Mexican descent, some of them U.S. citizens, are escorted out of the United States, voluntarily or involuntarily, as part of a repatriation program.

1930s: The number of social workers in the United States approximately doubles, to about 30,000.

1931: Rowland Hazard, a business executive, is advised by Carl Jung that his best hope for curing his alcoholism is through spirituality. Hazard joins the Oxford Group upon his return to the United States, and the principles of that organization influence the formation of Alcoholics Anonymous in 1935.

1932: Beginning of the Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment, an observation study by the U.S. Public Health Service of the progression of untreated syphilis in African Americans; the study continues until 1972, long after effective treatments for the disease have become available.

1932: Myles Horton establishes the Highlander Folk School, later the Highlander Center for Research and Education, in Tennessee to help adults work together to implement strategies to address local concerns such as poverty and bigotry.

1934: The Service Bureau for Intercultural Education is founded by Rachel Davis DuBois to foster the development of cultural pluralism and understanding among different racial and ethnic groups.

1935: The National Council of Negro Women (NCNW) is formed to improve the status of African American women and to help coordinate the activities of other African American women's organizations; Mary McLeod Bethune is the first NCNW president.

1935: Bill Wilson, a recovered alcoholic, begins holding Oxford Group meetings in his home; the spiritual and self-improvement philosophy of the Oxford Group heavily influences the creation of Alcoholics Anonymous.

1939: Bill Wilson and Robert Smith, known within the movement as Bill. W. and Dr. Bob, publish the first edition of Alcoholics Anonymous: The Story of How Many Thousands of Men and Women Have Recovered from Alcoholism, also known as “The Big Book;” among other things, this volume describes the 12-step program, which is a cornerstone of Alcoholics Anonymous.

1940: Founding of the National Federation of the Blind, an advocacy group and membership organization; it is the first civil rights organization in the United States organized around a disability.

1942: Executive Order 9066, signed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, authorizes the removal and internment of persons of Japanese ancestry (including U.S. citizens) living in some western states; about 120,000 Japanese and Japanese Americans are incarcerated under this order.

1943: The bracero program allows Mexicans to work temporarily in the United States in order to alleviate the wartime shortage of labor.

1943: The Magnuson Act repeals the Chinese Exclusion Act and allows 105 Chinese to immigrate to the United States each year.

56

1946: In Mendez et al. v. Westminster School District of Orange County, the U.S. District Court in Los Angeles rules that segregating Mexican American students from white students in the public school system is a violation of the Fourteenth Amendment's guarantee of equal protection under the law.

[Page xlii]1946: The U.S. Supreme Court rules in Morgan v. Commonwealth of Virginia that interstate buses must not be segregated. The Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) stages a deliberate test of this ruling in 1947, by sending a bus with eight white and eight black passengers through the south, which results in several passengers being arrested in North Carolina.

1947: The U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit rules in Mendez et al. v. Westminster School District of Orange County that requiring Mexican American children to attend different schools from white students is a violation of their rights.

1947: In Everson v. Board of Education, Irving Township, the U.S. Supreme Court rules that using public funds to bus children to private schools, including those run by religious organizations, is not a violation of the First Amendment.

1948: The U.S. Supreme Court rules in Sipuel v. Board of Regents of the University of Oklahoma that law schools may not discriminate on the basis of race in admissions decisions.

1948: The U.S. Supreme Court rules in McCollum v. Board of Education that public schools may not hold religion classes during the regular school Day.

1948: The U.S. District Court for the Western District of Texas rules in Delgado v. Bastrop Independent School District that public schools cannot segregate Mexican American students in separate schools, although they can provide separate classes as needed for language enrichment.

1948: On July 26, President Harry Truman officially prohibits segregation in the U.S. Armed Forces by signing Executive Order 9981.

1950: In Sweatt v. Painter and McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents, the U.S. Supreme Court rules that African Americans have the right to attend and receive full financial benefits from state graduate schools.

1950–64: The second wave of Korean immigration to the United States, mostly war orphans and wives of American servicemen.

1952: E. M. Jellink publishes “Phases of Alcohol Addiction” in Quarterl Journal of Studies on Alcohol;y this influential article promotes the concept of alcoholism as a disease.

1954: The U.S. Supreme Court in Brown v. Board of Education overturns the “separate but equal” standard established in Pless v. Ferguson

1954: In Hernandez v. Texas, the U.S. Supreme Court acknowledges that Hispanics are a separate class of people who suffer discrimination in the United States

1955: The Daughters of Bilitis, a lesbian organization, is founded in San Francisco. It becomes a voice for both lesbian and women's rights and begins publishing a magazine, The Ladder, in 1960.

1955: On December 1, African American Rosa Parks refuses to give up her seat on a Montgomery, Alabama, public bus to a white man. She is arrested, and on December 5, African Americans begin boycotting the city bus system, an action that plays a key role in the Civil Rights movement.

1955: Creation of the National Association of Social Workers (NASW) through the consolidation of seven organizations; the NASW will become the world's largest membership organization for social workers.

1957: The Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) is founded in Atlanta to work for civil rights, including voter registration for African Americans.

1959: The United Nations General Assembly adopts the Declaration of the Rights of the Child; [Page xliii]among the rights specified are the right to healthy development, education, protection from neglect, freedom from discrimination, and appropriate care and treatment for handicapped children.

1959: The Board of Supervisors in Prince Edward County, Virginia, suspends all public schools rather than comply with the demand to end segregation. The schools are reopened in 1964 by order of the U.S. Supreme Court, as articulated in Griffin v. School Board of Prince Edward County.

1960: A sit-in by a group of African American students at a whites-only lunch counter in Greensboro, North Carolina, is given wide publicity and is followed by similar demonstrations in over 50 other cities.

1960: The National Association of Social Workers (NASW) publishes its first code of ethics; as of 1999, the NASW Code of Ethics has been revised six times.

1961: The White House Conference on Aging recommends that the states develop adult protective services, through the cooperation of the medical profession, social service agencies, bar associations, and legal aid societies, to protect vulnerable adults from abuse, neglect, and self-neglect.

1961: President John F. Kennedy establishes the Peace Corps on a trial basis with Executive Order 10924; R. Sargent Shriver serves as the first director, developing programs in 55 countries by 1966.

1962: The political scientist Michael Harrington publishes The Other America, drawing attention to the large numbers of Americans living in poverty.

1962: In California, Cesar Chavez creates the United Farm Workers Organizing Committee, now known as the United Farm Workers of America; in 1965, it organizes a successful national boycott against the Delano, California, grape growers.

1962: In Engel v. Vitale, the U.S Supreme Court rules that beginning a public school Day with a prayer is a violation of freedom of religion, even if students are free to not participate in the prayer.

1963: The Equal Pay Act of 1963, a federal law, requires employers to pay men and women equally for comparable work.

1964: The federal Civil Rights Act of 1964 bans discrimination on the basis of race, ethnicity, gender, religion, or national origin and applies to Many spheres of life, including education and voting.

1964: The Head Start program is created as part of the Office of Economic Opportunity to provide enhanced educational opportunities and health and nutrition programs for preschool children from poor families; it will become the largest federal program to assist poor children.

1965: Chinese immigration to the United States expands substantially following passage of the McCarran Act of 1950, increasing from 237,393 in 1965, to 1.6 million in 1995, and 2.9 million in 2000.

1965: The federal Voting Rights Act of 1965 prohibits discriminatory voting practices and establishes federal oversight of elections in regions that have a History of restricting some individuals’ right to vote.

1965: Beginning of the second wave of immigration from Arab-speaking countries to the United States; these immigrants come from all over the Arab world, and most are of the Muslim faith.

1965: Following passage of the Older Americans Act and the creation of the Administration on Aging, there is substantial growth in the services provided for senior citizens and their families, including establishment of senior centers and adult Day care centers, provision of services such as home-delivered meals, and outreach, referral, and case management services.

1966–73: About 10 percent of the population of Cuba migrates to the United States.

1967: The National Welfare Rights Organization (NWRO) is founded to represent the needs of [Page xliv]welfare recipients, primarily women with dependent children; goals of the NWRO include a guaranteed annual income for all Americans and increased dignity, justice, and democracy for welfare recipients.

1968: The federal Fair Housing Act bans discrimination in housing on the basis of race, color, gender, religion, national origin, handicap, or familial status; among the barred actions are the refusal to rent or sell, the creation of different terms for rental or sale, and blockbusting.

1968: A Ford Foundation grant of $2.2 million helps found the Mexican American Legal Defense Fund (MALDEF), which aims to protect the civil rights of Latinos.

1968–69: Students and faculty at San Francisco State College strike and present the administration with a number of demands, including increasing minority enrollment and creating ethnic studies programs.

1971: President Richard M. Nixon declares a War on Drugs, motivated in part by the number of military veterans returning from Vietnam with drug addictions; creation of the Drug Enforcement Administration was part of this “war,” as were creation of the Special Office for Drug Abuse Prevention and the establishment of methadone treatment facilities across the United States.

1972: Title IX of the Educational Amendments to the Higher Education Act requires that women be treated equally in colleges and universities; the most visible manifestation of Title IX is the creation of Many women's sports programs, but it also applies in matters such as academic employment and student scholarships (e.g., the Rhodes Scholarships, formerly for men only, are now available to both men and women).

1973: Founding of the Children's Defense Fund (CDF), a private organization that advocates for the rights of children.

1973: In Keyes v. School District No. 1, the U.S. Supreme Court rules that Latinos are a minority group and must be considered in desegregation## decisions, and that segregation created by gerrymandering of school districts is illegal.

1974: The Council on Social Work Education (CSWE) implements the first standards to accredit bachelor's programs in social work.

1974: In Milliken v. Bradle, the U.S. Supreme Court strikes down a lower court decision ordering the suburbs of Detroit to integrate with urban schools; part of this decision was the ruling that de facto segregation (segregation in fact, but not by force of law) was beyond the jurisdiction of the courts, while de jure segregation (ordered and maintained by the legal system) was not.

1974: Passage of the Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act, the first federal law to enforce national standards in measures to prevent and treat child abuse.

1974: U.S. District Court Judge W. Arthur Garrity orders the public school system of Boston to begin busing students to achieve desegregation.

1974: The federal Equal Educational Opportunity Act requires public schools to create bilingual programs and additional assistance in learning English for students who need it.

1975: Large numbers of Vietnamese begin immigrating to the United States following the end of the Vietnam War.

1975: The Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act gives Native Americans more control over the education of their children, provides funds to build public schools on reservations, and creates preferences for Native Americans in the granting of subcontracts.

1975: A group of African American students at the University of Mississippi file a lawsuit in federal court, arguing that the state should provide more equitable funding to traditionally black colleges.

1976: In Tarasoff v. the Regents of the University of California, the California Supreme Court rules that preventing harm to third parties [Page xlv]may overrule the usual presumption of privacy between a psychotherapist and patient, and that the psychotherapist has the responsibility to inform others (e.g., the police, the patient's family) if there is a reasonable threat that the patient will harm someone.

1978: Two pieces of federal legislation, the American Indian Religious Freedom Act and the Indian Child Welfare Act, recognize the importance of Native American culture to tribal members.

1978: The U.S. Supreme Court in University of California Regents v. Bakke prohibits universities from establishing racial quotas for admissions.

1980s: Companies take advantage of the free trade zone or macquila along the United States/Mexico border, and begin building factories (maquiladoras) there to take advantage of low-cost Mexican labor and proximity to the United States.

1982: The federal Job Training Partnership Act provides summer youth employment programs and funding for training programs for poor adults and young people.

1982: The U.S. Supreme Court rules in Plyler v. Doe that undocumented immigrant children have the right to a free and equal public education.

1984: Passage of the Carl Perkins Vocational Education Act, which provides federal funds to develop vocational and technical education programs for young people and adults in order to prepare them for employment; the Perkins Act is reauthorized in 1990 and 1998.

1987: P. B. Baltes publishes “Theoretical Propositions of Life-Span Developmental psychology: On the Dynamics Between Growth and Decline” in Developmental psycholog, putting forth the theory that development is a multidimensional process that continues throughout the life span.

1988: The Office of National Drug Control policy (ONDCP) is created to help coordinate federal government research, health policy, security, and legislation relating to drugs.

1988: The Civil Liberties Act, signed by President Ronald Reagan, awards reparations of $20,000 to each survivor of the Japanese internment camps set up in the United States during World War II.

1989: Walter Kopp, a student at Princeton University, creates Teach for America to provide an opportunity for graduating college and university students to teach in underserved schools in rural and urban areas.

1990: Passage of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), a federal law stating that every child has a right to an appropriate public education, and providing funds to states to improve their educational programs for children with emotional, mental, or physical disabilities.

1990: Secondary school educator Kevin Jennings founds the Gay, Lesbian and Straight Education Network to advocate for the rights of individuals of all sexual orientations and gender identities to feel safe and respected in elementary and secondary schools.

1990: Fifty American college graduates form the first corps of Teach for America; as of 2013, about 33,000 people have taken part in the program, which places college graduates as teachers in low-income areas.

1992: Tony Grasso publishes the edited collection Research Utilization in the Social Services, arguing for the importance of agency-based research, that is, research conducted within a social service agency and carried out by the agency's staff.

1992: President Bill Clinton raises the position of director of the Office of National Drug Control policy, also known as the “Drug Czar,” to Cabinet status.

1993: Increased attention is focused on human smuggling following the death of eight Chinese immigrants aboard the New Venture, a ship attempting to bring them illegally into the United States.

1994: The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), creating a trade bloc consisting [Page xlvi]of the United States, Canada, and Mexico, goes into effect.

1994: The International Federation of Social Workers (IFSW) publishes its first code of ethics, Ethics in Social Work: Statement of Principles; the IFSW code is revised in 2004.

1996: In Hopwood v. State of Texas, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit rules that colleges and universities may not use race or national origin as a factor in admissions decisions; the plaintiff, Cheryl Hopwood, is a white student who claimed she was discriminated against in the admissions process at the University of Texas Law School because of her race.

1999: Passage of the Foster Care Independence Act, a federal law providing funding to the states to develop programs to help young adults aging out of the foster care system (typically at age 18) make the transition to independent adulthood.

2002: Kevin Kumashiro coins the term antioppressive education to refer to practices and strategies teachers can draw on to counter what he sees as oppressive characteristics of schools.

2002: The Education Sciences Reform Act of 2002 creates the Institution of Education Sciences (IES), a federal organization within the U.S. Department of Education, replacing the Office of Educational Research and Improvement; the IES includes the National Center for Education Research, the National Center for Education Statistics, and the National Center for Evaluation and Regional Assistance.

2004: The National Association of Social Workers (NASW) establishes the NASW Center for Workforce Studies to collect information about the social work labor force, enhance professional development, and disseminate information about evidence-based practices.

2004: Jose Spring publishes Deculturalization and the Struggle for Equality: A Brief History of the Education of the Dominated Cultures in the United States, a book arguing that American schools have systematically devalued and disrupted minority cultural values and forced a curriculum, language, and cultural practices based in Anglo-American values on students.

2006: The National Association of Social Workers issues “Standards for Cultural Competence in Social Work Practice;” areas covered include language diversity, cross-cultural leadership, service delivery, empowerment and advocacy, self-awareness, and ethics and values.

2008: The U.S. Census Bureau predicts that minority groups taken collectively will constitute a majority in the United States by 2042, earlier than the previously projected date of 2050.

2010: President Barack Obama signs the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, an overhaul of the U.S. healthcare system intended to make health insurance accessible to most or all Americans, with changes to be phased in over a period of years.

2010–20: According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics in the U.S. Department of Labor, the social work profession is expected to grow by 25 percent between 2010 and 2020.

2011: According to a report from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), diabetes continues to disproportionately affect African Americans, with 18.7 percent of non-Hispanic blacks estimated to have diabetes, as compared to 10.2 percent of non-Hispanic whites.

2012: A report by the Pew Institute finds that over half (54 percent) of American Hispanics prefer to be identified by their family's country of origin rather than by the Hispanic label.

2013: In March, the National Association of Social Workers holds a national forum in Washington, D.C., on the “feminization of poverty,” a term coined by social work researcher Diana Pearce 35 years earlier.

2013: In June, the National Association of Social Workers issues a statement commending the decision of the U.S. Supreme Court in U.S. v. Windsor, [Page xlvii]which ruled that the Defense of Marriage Act was unconstitutional.

2013: In July, an analysis by Erkan Gören at the University of Oldenburg, GerMany, finds the United States near the middle of all nations in terms of ethnic diversity, ranking between Russia and Spain.

2013: In August, the exemption granted to religious organizations that provide health care under the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, in which they were temporarily freed from being required to provide contraceptive coverage, expires.

2013: In September, the exhibit “Health Is a Human Right: Race and Place in America” opens at the David J. Sencer CDC Museum, exploring health disparities in the United States.

2013: In October, people begin enrolling in state health insurance exchanges established as part of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act passed in 2010.

2013: According to data released by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) in 2013, the United States ranked fifth among OECD countries in attainment of a tertiary (post-high school) degree, but only 12th in the 25 to 34 year age group, indicating that other OECD countries are catching up to or surpassing the United States in the percentage of young people attaining a tertiary degree.

2014: According to the Central Intelligence agency (CIA) World Factbook, the United States ranks 55th among 224 countries with an infant mortality rate of 6.17 deaths per 1,000 live births; by way of comparison, the lowest rate was 1.81 per 1,000 (Monaco). The United Kingdom had a rate of 4.44 per 1,000, and the rate was 4.71 in Canada.

2014: The National Association of Social Workers requests public input for an updated version of its Standards for Social Work Practice in Health Care Settings, with the comment period closing on August 15, 2014.

2014: According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the seasonally adjusted unemployment rate in the United States was 6.1 percent, down from 7.5 percent in June 2013, with unemployment higher among teenagers (age 16 to 19; 21.0 percent), blacks and African Americans (10.7 percent), and Hispanics and Latinos (7.8 percent).

2014: In June, the U.S. Department of State releases the Trafficking in Persons Report 2014, noting that victims, prosecutions, and convictions for human trafficking have increased each year since 2008, with 44,758 victims of human trafficking identified in 2013.

2014: According to a report issued in July by the Department of Health and Human Services, the Affordable Care Act (also known as Obamacare) has produced $9 billion in savings on health insurance premiums for Americans since 2011.