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Literacy Testing

Voting is one of the most important ways in which individuals engage in a participatory democracy. However, the right has not always been equitably applied among America's diverse populations. Over the course of the 20th century, unfettered access to the ballot became a key issue in the struggle for African American civil rights. Literacy testing and other restrictive measures were part of a concerted effort to disenfranchise African American voters.

Historically, literacy testing refers to the government practice of administering a test to potential voters in order to determine their literacy and authenticate their understanding of the civic process. Theoretically, the registration practice of literacy testing was to be applied to both white and black voters who could not prove a certain level of education. However, the tests were disproportionately given to black voters, Many of whom were unable to read. Indeed, during the 1890s—when the use of literacy testing became more widespread—40 to 60 percent of African Americans were illiterate, compared to only 8 to 18 percent of whites. When used this way, the practice of literacy testing became an integral part of the larger process of voter disenfranchisement and sociopolitical exclusion that occurred after the passage of the Fifteenth Amendment that gave African American men the right to vote. Although literacy testing has its roots in the 19th century, the practice had a long life span and was not outlawed until the passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965.

Victory and Violence

The Emancipation Proclamation and the Union victory in the Civil War marked a period of intense optimism for African Americans. The hopes of freedom were made tangible in 1867 and 1868, when African American men were among the Many delegates in attendance at the constitutional conventions in the southern states. Each of the former Confederate states held conventions to create new state constitutions. The African American delegates included former slaves, Union Army veterans, and skilled laborers. Some of these delegates went on to serve in political offices in the following years. All of the delegates, both black and white, were united in their hopes of creating new state constitutions. A key provision in these new constitutions was universal suffrage, which granted all men the right to vote. The elections to ratify the new state constitutions began in 1867, and each state elected an African American to political office.

The African American presence in politics was short-lived. During their tenure, African American Reconstruction-era politicians had an impact on a range of issues, including education and industry. However, because they were often in the minority, they were therefore unable to enact large-scale civil rights initiatives. African American politicians and voters faced a rising tide of white supremacy tactics designed to scare them from political discourse and discourage any attempt at social equality. The Ku Klux Klan was founded in 1866 and immediately began a program of extreme violence and voter intimidation. In an effort to protect voter rights, the federal government passed the Fifteenth Amendment in 1869. The Fifteenth Amendment guaranteed voting rights for all African American men with the following words: “The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.” The amendment was ratified in 1870 and was viewed as a hard-earned victory in the struggle for citizenship and civil rights.

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