Affirmative Action

Benefits of Affirmative Action

The trajectory of U.S. history of unfair treatment of persons based on their race, gender, ethnicity, sexual orientation, or disability is haunting. Given the historical trend of exclusion in the United States, little diversity would exist in the American workforce in general, or institutions of higher education in particular, in the absence of affirmative action. Data from multiple branches of the social sciences show that sexism and racism are still significant problems in the United States. Differences, affirmed by the U.S. Department of Labor, on the basis of race continue in educational opportunities, rates of pay, receipt of adequate medical care, and treatment at the hands of the judicial system. Affirmative action seeks to eliminate the practice of engaging in unfair and discriminatory practices that would support a cherished system of meritocracy in the United States by basing selection and employment decisions on demographic characteristics at the expense of ability and achievement. Beyond that, the U.S. government recognizes that equality of opportunity is not the same as equality of results. For example, Renée Middleton and Carl Flowers note that despite data showing that women and people of color compose more than 50% of the new entrants to the workforce, hold more than 53% of all service-related positions, they hold less than 2% of all upper-level management positions. Affirmative action gives the nation a way to address the systemic exclusion of individuals of talent solely on the basis of their gender or race, from opportunities to develop, perform, achieve, and contribute.

Functionality of Affirmative Action in Higher Education

Higher education in the United States began as an opportunity for nonslaves, particularly Americans of high socioeconomic status, to better prepare themselves for their civic responsibilities. For this reason, from its origin, higher education was designed to be selective. It was not intended to address the needs of diverse populations. It was founded on principles of segregation. The demand for educational reform increased as the nation became more diverse. Subsequently, systemic barriers to education were challenged by initiatives intended to assist nondominant groups. Two of these initiatives were affirmative action and cultural diversity. We will discuss cultural diversity later in the entry. With respect to affirmative action, President Kennedy's 1961 Executive Order 10925 required federal contractors to take “affirmative action” to end discrimination. The order received much criticism because initially it only barred employment discrimination by government contractors, but what would be the impact on higher education, specifically with respect to employment and professional school admissions? Repetitive in Lyndon Johnson's 1965 Executive Order 11246, and later in Executive Order 11114, the term still lacked specificity. The orders explained that affirmative action was a relatively new concept in management and was meant to acquaint [Page 29]government contractors with this requirement. In higher education, affirmative action has been viewed as federal legislation affirming qualified women and African American candidates or minorities over unqualified and qualified men or nonminority candidates with the immediate goals of outreach, remedying discrimination, or achieving diversity. More specifically, in higher education, affirmative action may be viewed as positive or aggressive action as opposed to negative or passive action; it encompasses the steps necessary to ensure that institutions put into practice stated policies of equal employment opportunity without regard to race, color, creed, or national origin.

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