Reinforcement

Positive and Negative Reinforcement

There are two types of reinforcement: positive and negative. Positive reinforcement is the addition of a stimulus that increases the likelihood that the behavior that preceded it will occur again. Negative reinforcement is the removal of a stimulus, such as escape from a task, which also increases the likelihood that a behavior will occur again. Negative reinforcement is often confused with punishment, but negative reinforcement increases the likelihood that the preceding behavior will occur again, whereas punishment decreases the likelihood.

Types of Reinforcers

There are functionally two types of reinforcers: primary (unconditioned) and secondary (conditioned). Primary reinforcers are events that individuals need and, by virtue of that, can be used as consequences to increase the likelihood that the preceding behavior will occur again. Examples include food, water, and sleep. Deprivation and satiation are especially important concepts when discussing primary reinforcers. A primary reinforcer that an individual has been deprived of will have extremely strong reinforcing [Page 846]properties. Deprivation is limiting access to the item so that the individual strongly needs the item. An example of this might be if an individual has not drunk in several hours and, upon seeing water, might say the word “water.” If the person is given the water, that water may act as a reinforcer, increasing the likelihood that saying the word “water” will happen again. In addition, if an individual satiates on an item that typically has reinforcing properties, that reinforcer may no longer have any reinforcing power.

Secondary reinforcers are events that become reinforcers after being paired with other reinforcing events. When delivered as a consequence, they also increase the likelihood that the preceding behavior will occur again. Examples might include stickers, social praise, or a toy. Often, a secondary reinforcer is delivered concurrently with a primary reinforcer or with another established secondary reinforcer. So, when first delivering a sticker as a reinforcer, a teacher might also deliver a small bite of food. With time and with systematic fading of delivery of the food, the sticker may have similar reinforcing properties as the food.

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