Learned Helplessness

Research

Seligman and colleagues were the first to manipulate learning deficits by exposing animals to inescapable aversive stimuli. Their phrase learned helplessness was used both as a description and a theoretical explanation of the observed learning deficits. In typical learned helplessness laboratory studies, researchers would first expose dogs to a series of inescapable electric shocks. Up to 24 hours later, the researchers put the dogs in the same situation except that they could now avoid or terminate the shocks by simply stepping over a small fence into another part of the training box. If the dog did not terminate or try to escape from the shock, Seligman and colleagues designated it as exhibiting learned helplessness; they believed the dog had learned that nothing it could do would matter.

Researchers extended this animal model of learned helplessness to humans, although the experiments were considerably less aversive. Experiments with humans would present irritating noises instead of electrical shock, but the results were still similar to the results with dogs. In one classic study, researchers exposed participants to a loud noise. During the first set of trials, the participants in the contingent control group could stop the noise with the simple pressing of a button; in contrast, participants in the noncontingent “helpless” group could not stop the noise. In the second set of trials, both groups could move a knob to avoid a signaled noise. Despite the change in contingencies, the participants previously exposed to the uncontrollable noise sat passively and did not attempt escape. In contrast, participants from the response contingent control group and an additional no-noise control group quickly learned to escape the noise by simply moving the knob. Seligman and colleagues concluded that humans, like dogs, develop learned helplessness when exposed to uncontrollable aversive stimuli. Further research on learned helplessness in humans shifted to using unsolvable problems or puzzles as the uncontrollable aversive stimuli. Researchers have subsequently found remarkable individual differences in children's responses to unavoidable failure on cognitive tasks, which has led to the educationally important question of why some succumb to learned helplessness and others do not.

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