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Goals

Goals are cognitive representations of future objects that an individual is committed to approach or avoid. Goals are important in motivation and self-regulation, because they focus people's attention on specific possibilities and guide their behavior toward concrete aims. The topic of goals is important to educational psychologists, as they research how general motivational energy is given specific direction in educationally relevant contexts. In this entry, the goal construct is defined in more elaborate fashion, and achievement goals are defined and conceptualized.

Definition of Goal

A more complete understanding of the aforementioned definition of goal may be acquired by considering each of its facets separately.

Cognitive Representation

A goal is a cognitive representation, which means that goals are inferred, not observable, constructs. Goals are restricted to organisms that utilize a mental apparatus in the regulation process; the actions of plant life are not seen as goal-directed behavior, because the organism is reacting reflexively and not with regard to an envisioned possibility. In the same fashion, physiological functions in humans, such as digestion or blood circulation, are not considered goal directed, because these functions are carried out without any mental imaging of the future.

Future

In goal-directed behavior, a future image is used as a guide to present behavior. Behavior is not just an immediate, unmediated response to a present stimulus, but it involves prevision of a future possibility that has a causal influence on present behavior.

Object

The object of a goal is the focal point of regulation. The term object is used broadly to refer to an entity, event, experience, or characteristic that is the central focus of the goal. These objects may take on many different forms and contents; they may be concrete or abstract, physical or psychological, observable or unobservable. The object of the goal is not the goal itself. A goal contains both an object and some sort of commitment regarding that object. For example, in the goal “Keep in touch with my parents,” “in touch with my parents” is the object, and “keep” is the commitment. An object and a commitment are both necessary components of the goal construct.

Commitment

Goals are adopted when an individual commits to an action of some sort with respect to a cognitively represented future object. Goal commitment is not an all-or-none process; persons may make various levels of commitment to goals and may adopt multiple goals with respect to the same object. Goal commitment must begin with a conscious intention, but over time, such commitments may become automatized and guide behavior without intention or awareness.

Approach or Avoidance

Approach or avoidance is a fundamental distinction that is applicable to any and all types of goals. Goals are focused either on approach or avoidance. Approach goals involve the pursuit or maintenance of a positively valenced object, whereas avoidance goals involve distancing or staying away from a negatively valenced object. Both approach and avoidance “movement” may involve either physical activity (e.g., “Eat one serving of vegetables each day”) or psychological activity (e.g., “Stop hating vegetables so much”).

Achievement Goals

The goals most relevant to educational psychology are achievement goals that focus on competence. Such goals may be differentiated in terms of two basic aspects of competence: how it is defined and how it is valenced.

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