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Family Influences

Family influences are factors, characteristics, or behaviors exhibited by the family that can bring about changes to one or more members of that family. Though there are numerous and diverse family arrangements, research has often focused on the relationship between the parent and the child. Because parents are generally considered the primary caregivers in the family, they have a great influence on their child's biological, social, emotional, and intellectual development. Depending on the context, family influences can contribute to positive outcomes for the child as well as negative outcomes.

Genetic and Environmental Influences

One important family influence factor is the fundamental fact that parents pass their genes on to their biological children. Genes can determine the child's physical characteristics (e.g., eye color, hair color, and height), how the child's body will function, and even personality. In addition, there has been evidence that suggests that genetic factors, along with environmental influences, can contribute to the etiology of a variety of mental health and physical health disorders, such as schizophrenia, clinical depression, substance abuse, and different types of cancer. For example, a parent may pass on genes that convey risk for a specific disorder, such as schizophrenia, or a biological disposition or temperament that may allow the child to become more vulnerable only in risky social environments. If a parent or relative has a history of major depression, then the child is two to three times more likely to develop this condition than those who do not have a parent or relative with depression. For parents with a history of alcohol or substance abuse, research evidence suggests that certain genetic influences (e.g., comorbid psychiatric disorders in parents) substantially affect the likelihood that children will develop alcohol abuse or other psychological disorders as they reach adulthood. The implication for these findings is that there may be a major genetic or hereditary influence interacting with the environment that can lead to specific developmental outcomes for the child.

However, well-functioning families can protect children who are at genetic risk and circumvent processes that usually lead to negative outcomes. For example, adopted children who are currently living in dangerous communities and whose biological parents have a history of criminality are more likely to display criminal behaviors than are adopted children living in safer neighborhoods. If these at-risk children are adopted into stable and loving families who live in safer and more supportive environments, the children's risk of developing criminal or antisocial behavior is decreased significantly. Therefore, genetic vulnerabilities that are expressed only in the presence of environmental triggers, such as parenting or environmental contexts, suggest that interpersonal and family influences can also play a significant role in the child's development.

Attachment

The behaviors of parents and caregivers influence children's behaviors and personalities as early as infancy. When emotional bonds are formed between the parents and the child, this process is known as attachment. There are two general types of attachment: secure and insecure. Parents, particularly mothers, who form a secure attachment with their children, are available and responsive to their child's needs and establish a sense of security within the child. Though infants initially exhibit distress when separated from their parents, the infants will reconnect warmly with the parents when they return. When frightened, securely attached children will constantly seek comfort from their parents or caregivers. These children know their parent or caregiver will provide security and reassurance, so they are comfortable seeking them out in times of need. As these children grow older, they become friendly, cooperative, and self-confident, and they adjust easily to the classroom environment and establish amicable relationships with teachers and peers.

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