Behavior Modification

Classical and Operant Conditioning

Classical conditioning also referred to as respondent or Pavlovian conditioning, modifies the occurrence of a behavior by pairing two stimuli together to produce a similar response to both. In the famous example, Ivan Pavlov paired an unconditioned stimulus (e.g., meat powder that cued salivation in a dog) with a neutral stimulus (e.g., a bell, which normally would not stimulate salivation). Eventually, the bell became a conditioned stimulus once the dog learned to salivate solely by the sound of the bell.

The theory of operant conditioning, originally put forth by B. F. Skinner, offers a different method for modifying behavior. In contrast to classical conditioning, which focuses on reflexive or involuntary behaviors, operant conditioning modifies voluntary or learned behaviors. Operant conditioning emphasizes antecedents (e.g., events that occur prior to behavior) and consequences (e.g., events that occur after the behavior), both of which affect the probability that a certain behavior will occur. Whereas antecedents provide a cue for a behavior to occur, behavior is believed to be governed primarily by the consequence of the behavior. That is, the probability of a behavior taking place in the future is determined by what happens after the behavior has occurred. If the consequence of a behavior is desired by the individual, then he or she is more likely to perform the behavior in the future. If the consequence is undesired, then it is less likely that the behavior will occur again. There are two categories of consequences within operant conditioning, reinforcement and punishment. Consequences are reinforcing if they increase the likelihood of a behavior's occurrence in the future; alternatively, consequences are punishing when they reduce the probability of future occurrence.

Social Learning Theory

Behavior modification is also founded upon Albert Bandura's social learning theory. According to social learning theory, an individual's behavior may be affected by observing the behavior of others. Children and adults learn by witnessing the consequences of others' behavior. An underlying principle of social learning theory is modeling, which suggests that people are more likely to engage in behaviors they observe other people perform if those individuals receive desired consequences.

Ecological Systems Theory

An ecological perspective, proposed by Uri Bronfenbrenner, contends that behavior is influenced by conditions existing in the individual's immediate environment, surrounding environments, and experiences occurring in the larger social, economic, and cultural contexts. Within this approach, individual capabilities are assessed in relation to environmental demands. Consistent with this framework, behavior modification strategies also explore how experiences within one's environment affect behavior. Not only are antecedents and consequences viewed within the individual's immediate setting (e.g., classroom), but their effects can be apparent from events that occurred in a previous setting (e.g., home). In particular, setting events are experiences in previous settings that set the stage for a particular behavior in a later setting. For example, a child who did not eat breakfast at home may find it harder to stay on-task in class during the school day.

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