Psychology, Types of

Psychology, in its broadest sense, is the study of human behavior. It involves the investigation of learning, motivation, memory, personality, intelligence, and leadership. Psychological theory provides the framework by which causation, prediction, and control of behavior can be systematically addressed. Those types of psychology most closely related to the field of education include

• Behaviorism
• Developmental psychology
• Humanistic psychology
• Descriptive psychology
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• Social psychology
• Cognitive psychology
• Psychometry and psychological testing

Behaviorism, or behavioral psychology, is based primarily on the work of Edward Thorndike and B. F. Skinner. It is an attempt to address human behavior from a scientific, functionalist, objectivist perspective. Behaviorism relies on direct observation of measurable behavioral phenomena. The prime focus of behavioral psychology is to determine the effect of consequences on behavior and thereby enhance learning, motivation, and performance. The construct encompassed in Thorndike's law of effect, that behaviors that are followed by positive consequences tend to be repeated and those that are followed by aversive or neutral consequences tend to fall out of use, is the basis for the application of behaviorism in educational settings. By understanding the manner in which consequences are delivered (reinforcement schedules), the nature of past consequences (reinforcement history), and the strength of specific antecedents (discriminative stimuli), environments can be designed to enhance learning and promote positive outcomes.

The work of Donald Baer, Montrose Wolf, Todd Risley, and Vance Hall in the 1970s and 1980s established applied behavior analysis as the preeminent form of behaviorism. At this time, the focus of behaviorism ceased to be on basic research, and the established principles of behaviorism were applied to “real world” problems of social importance (many involving educational settings). During this period, many of those techniques that today are established educational practice were developed and validated (i.e., systematic attention, time-out, token economies, response cost). In addition, behaviors from toilet training to spelling and math proficiency or on-task behavior were targeted for behavior modification. The target of such intervention was usually the specific behaviors of a given individual. Therefore, single subject research designs for applied research were developed. The impact of behaviorism in education has been most directly felt in the areas of special education and classroom management. Leadership and administration have also been impacted by behavioral psychology via Frederick Taylor's scientific management.

Developmental psychology focuses the normal cognitive, affective, and physical processes and how they change as an individual grows. Those developmental psychology theories most pertinent to the profession of education focus on social development and learning. Such theories are either stage theories (emphasizing movement from one level of functioning to another, more advanced level) or sequence theories (generally age independent and emphasizing a sequential progression through observable behaviors, ways of thinking, or world views).

Stage theories include Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development, and Robert Havighurst's theory of developmental tasks. All three of these theories have had a significant effect on education and continue to affect the field through applications to curricular and instructional issues. Erikson's theory, emphasizing the successful resolution of problems at a given developmental stage as a predictor of future success, has had a significant effect on K–12 education. Erikson suggests that the stages of his theory are interconnected and possess both important events to be addressed and a developmental crisis to be resolved. In essence, mastering the tasks that make up the significant event and resolution of the developmental crisis at any stage has a long-lasting impact on a person's self-image and view of society. Schools have been influenced by Erikson's theory in curricular, instructional, and social contexts. In addition, compensatory and special education services both have a basis in Erikson's theory. Academic support programs in elementary and middle schools and extracurricular secondary programs (both social and preprofessional) are the direct result of the application of Erikson's theory to educational settings.

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