Organizational Theories

There has been a plethora of organizational theories during the past century. Bureaucracy, an organizational theory that emerged in the early twentieth century, has been the basic infrastructure of schools in the industrial world. Bureaucracy is ill suited to the demands of our postindustrial demographically diverse information society. In a period of increasing demands for accountability, demographic changes in school population, and economic crisis, most schools are being forced to examine their fundamental structural assumptions. Bureaucratic characteristics not only are being viewed as less than useful but also are considered to be harmful. Some of these negative features of bureaucracy include the following:

• Division of labor and specialization. A high degree of division of labor can reduce staff initiative. As jobs become narrower in scope and well defined by procedures, individuals sacrifice autonomy and independence. Although specialization can lead to increased productivity and efficiency, it can also create conflict between specialized units, to the detriment of the overall goals of the school. For example, specialization may impede communication between units. Moreover, overspecialization may result in boredom and routine for some staff, which can lead to dissatisfaction, absenteeism, and turnover.
• Reliance on rules and procedures. Max Weber claimed that use of formal rules and procedures was adopted to help remove the uncertainty in attempting to coordinate a variety of activities in an organization. Reliance on rules can lead to the inability to cope with unique cases that do not conform to normal circumstances. In addition, the emphasis on rules and procedures can produce excessive red tape. The use of rules and procedures is only a limited strategy in trying to achieve coordinated actions. Other strategies may be required. But bureaucracy's approach is to create new rules to cover emerging situations and new contingencies. And once established, it is difficult to remove ineffectual rules or procedures in a bureaucracy.
• Emphasis on hierarchy of authority. The functional attributes of a hierarchy are that it maintains an authority relationship, coordinates activities and personnel, and serves as the formal system of communication. In theory, the hierarchy has both a downward and upward communication flow. In practice, it usually has only a downward emphasis. Thus, upward communication is impeded, and there is no formal recognition of horizontal communication. This stifles individual initiative and participation in decision making.
• Lifelong careers and evaluation. Weber's bureaucratic model stresses lifelong careers and evaluations based on merit. Because competence can be difficult to measure in bureaucratic jobs and because a high degree of specialization enables most employees to master their jobs quickly, there is a tendency to base promotions and salary increments more on seniority and loyalty than on actual skill and performance. Thus, the idea of having the most competent people [Page 718]in positions within the organization is not fully realized. Loyalty is obtained, but this loyalty is toward the protection of one's position, not to the effectiveness of the organization.
• Impersonality. The impersonal nature of bureaucracy is probably its most serious shortcoming. Recent critics of bureaucracy attack it as emphasizing rigid, control-oriented structures over people found to be incompatible with professional learning communities.

The renowned organization theorist Warren Bennis represents one of the extreme critics of bureaucratic structuring in organizations. In 1966, he forecasted the demise of bureaucracy. In a more recent book, Managing the Dream, he exposes the hidden obstacles in our organizations—and in society at large—that conspire against good leadership. According to Bennis in 2000, within any organization an entrenched bureaucracy with a commitment to the status quo undermines the unwary leader. This creates an unconscious conspiracy in contemporary society, one that prevents leaders from taking charge and making changes.

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