Literacy, Theories of

Multiple theories of literacy and schooling explain ways students gain competency in content fields such as language arts, science, mathematics, the arts, and computer technology. Literacy is inherently complex, and definitions range from describing skills, abilities, and knowledge at the individual level to examining social practices and competencies at the functional level to explaining it in terms of political goals and [Page 618]ideological values. Here, literacy means essential knowledge, skills, and abilities in receptive and expressive language processes that include reading, writing, oral language, listening, and thinking. Writing refers both to composition and mechanics (grammar, spelling, punctuation, letter formation). A brief review follows of basic theories explaining the nature of development and learning, representative theories/approaches regarding literacy acquisition, and references to several broader interpretations that include other current literacies.

Theories of literacy and schooling rest on assumptions about the nature of development and learning, and many come from the field of psychology. Most traditional print literacy acquisition theories derive, at least in part, from either a developmental or an environmental theoretical orientation. Resultant long-standing “nature versus nurture” controversy fuels current educational and literacy debates.

John Locke, seventeenth-century father of environmentalism and learning theory (followed by scientists such as Ivan Pavlov and B. F. Skinner), viewed a child's mind as a tabula rasa, or blank slate, shaped almost entirely by experience and learning. In the environmental view, the teacher is of imminent importance in shaping the learner and is seen to “pour out” information and learning into passively receptive students who are perceived as “empty vessels” waiting to be filled. This perspective may be seen today in behaviorist theory and in medical models of instruction currently being applied to the field of literacy (e.g., the scientifically based reading research methodology and language used in the No Child Left Behind [NCLB] Act of 2001). In this skills-based view, teachers disseminate instruction that is segmented into a series of sequential tasks that children master in order to be able to perform complex operations such as reading, mathematics, and so on. Materials are of prime importance and are often scripted so teachers follow models exactly as prescribed by experts.

A theoretical perspective almost opposite of Locke's is developmentalism. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, eighteenth-century father of developmentalism, was followed by theorists such as Arnold Gessell, Maria Montessori, Heinz Werner, and Jean Piaget. Rousseau's developmentalist/naturalistic perspective held that adults should not rush to teach children in “correct” ways but rather allow them to develop as nature had intended (i.e., to develop their own powers of thinking and judgment and to learn in their own ways). Maturationist theories that advocated giving children time to “ripen” before beginning instruction were developmental in nature. “Readiness” prereading instruction of earlier decades came from the maturationist theoretical perspective. Today naturalistic theory is evident in preschools, kindergartens, and first grades that use developmentally appropriate practice (DAP). Constructivism is also a developmental theory. Here the teacher acts as facilitator and guide, and students are active constructors of knowledge.

From his sociocultural historical perspective, L. S. Vygotsky developed a dialogical theory of learning that described the zone of proximal development. He said children begin learning long before they attend school and that learning and development are interrelated from the child's very first day of life. He described the zone of proximal development as the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers. In this theory, teachers are important in supporting and challenging student learning. Vygotskian Constructivism underlies many of the newer interpretations of literacy.

...