Learning, Theories of

Behaviorism

Behaviorists believe that learning is the result of environmental stimuli that “condition” behavior responses. Behaviorists assume that human beings and animals learn in the same way, so principles derived from research with animals are applied to human learning. Learning is studied by observing and measuring an organism's responses to environmental stimuli.

From his studies of cats trying to get out of a puzzle box, Edward Thorndike posited that learning generally involves trial-and-error behavior. When responses are followed by satisfying consequences, those responses are strengthened, but when responses are followed by discomfort, those responses are weakened. Practice facilitates the learning of responses.

Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, developed the theory of classical conditioning as he was studying salivation in dogs. Pavlov concluded that organisms could be conditioned to demonstrate an involuntary response (e.g., salivation) through the pairing of two stimuli (e.g., meat powder and a bell ringing).

B. F. Skinner proposed the principles of operant conditioning. Skinner believed we learn behaviors that are followed by certain consequences. He developed the Skinner box to study responses (e.g., a rat pressing a metal bar) and effects of reinforcers (e.g., getting a food pellet as a reinforcer for pressing a metal bar) in a controlled environment. Skinner observed that responses are strengthened by reinforcers or consequences that increase the frequency of a behavior. He also observed that a reinforcer must follow a response immediately and must be presented only if the desired response occurs.

Clark Hull suggested that the presence of intervening variables unique to each organism influenced a response to a stimulus. Hull posited that intervening variables (e.g., habit strength, drive, stimulus intensity, incentive) work together to increase the likelihood and relative strength of a particular response. Inhibitory factors (e.g., fatigue) decreased the likelihood and strength of a response.

Behaviorist learning theory has affected classroom practices in several ways. Teachers have been taught the importance of reinforcement and the fact that learning is more likely to occur in environments that provide positive consequences for learning. Reinforcers may be material objects, signs of positive regard, opportunity to engage in favorite activities, good feelings, or positive feedback on learning performance. It is important for students to be active respondents. Repetition and reinforcement strengthen desired stimulus-response habits.

Social and Hierarchical Learning Theory

Social learning theory focuses on how people learn from one another in a social context. Albert Bandura at Stanford University was integral to the development of social learning theory. Bandura believed that people learn through observing and modeling what others do. He identified three types of models: (1) live (a person is demonstrating a behavior), (2) symbolic (a person or character in a film, television show, book, etc., is demonstrating a behavior), and (3) verbal instruction (a description is given about how one is supposed to behave). Bandura proposed that four conditions are necessary for someone to learn through modeling: (1) the individual must pay attention to the model and to essential components of the modeled behavior, (2) the individual must remember the behavior by developing verbal and visual memory codes as guides for performing the observed behavior, (3) the individual must want to demonstrate the behavior, and (4) the individual must replicate the behavior.

...