Dropouts

To drop out of secondary school (middle and high school levels) decreases the chance of success and may create dependence on social services. The combined effect costs the United States approximately $250 billion to replace lost wages and tax revenues and provide social welfare services. The typical time to drop out of school is between the 10th and 12th grades, given that most states require compulsory school attendance up to age 16. The literature reports that secondary school dropouts were more likely to use drugs and alcohol and engage in violent and criminal behaviors than nondropout adolescents. Today, dropouts comprise 85% of juvenile justice cases and 50% to 82% of prison populations throughout the United States. An approximate 55% of dropouts are unemployed and dependent upon social welfare. Employed dropouts, especially individuals with disabilities, earn low wages. The literature reports depression, alienation, health problems, and familial disengagement as indicators of dropouts.

Between 347,000 and 544,000 secondary school students dropped out of school within the last decade. [Page 304]The average dropout rate is from 7% to 16% per year. Extrapolating special education dropout counts increases the rate, since these students drop out of school at rates that range from 17% to 42%. Students with emotional-behavioral disabilities drop out of school at rates that range from 21% to 64%. If included in dropout counts, expelled students forced to leave school (“pushouts”) would increase the prevalence rate.

The prevalence of dropouts is greatest among minorities. Hispanic youth, the nation's largest minority population, comprise the highest dropout rate of any minority group. Alabama, Arkansas, Colorado, Georgia, Nevada, North Carolina, Oregon, and Tennessee reported that less than half of their Hispanic youth population graduated from secondary school. African Americans comprise the second highest minority dropout rate. Georgia, Minnesota, Nevada, Ohio, Oregon, Tennessee, and Wisconsin reported that less than half of their African American populations graduated from secondary school. Overall, Georgia's total graduation rate (57%) is the lowest in the nation.

Disagreement exists about the ratio of male to female dropouts. One argument asserts that boys are more prone to drop out of school than girls among African Americans and Caucasians. A counter argument is that female students are more vulnerable than males to drop out of school because of gender-specific life events, such as pregnancy.

In sum, secondary school dropouts often endure (a) social ailments, (b) academic deficits, or (c) combined social ailments and academic deficits. Research failed to capture these experiences and the implications they raise. Reported reasons included (a) outdated samples contrary to contemporary minority populations, (b) poor controlled designs, (c) small effect sizes, (d) statistical analyses devoid of discussions about the complexities of school administration, curriculum, and instruction, (e) reliance on self-reported survey data, and (e) unobtainable/incomplete academic records.

Historical and present-day disagreements about definitions of and theories/models that conceptualize the term dropouts underscore the research problems. Theoretical orientations-models included (a) strain theory, (b) social control theory, (c) working mother model, (d) transactional model, (e) systems theory, and (d) deviant peer group model. Researchers continue to voice historical conclusions that a host of factors beyond academic aptitude contribute to the school dropout phenomenon. Yet, recent studies failed to isolate independent variables (e.g., grade retention) to link systemic issues and decisions to drop out of school. Observed issues such as socioeconomic status (SES) hypothesized as negative effects on dropouts went unexplored. Problems in research continue, and attention today focuses on person-centered correlations that do not account for systemic barriers.

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