Competition, Forms of, in Schools

A competitive structure is one in which individuals have directly opposing goals. A “perfect competition” or a “zero-sum situation” is when one individual wins and the other loses. When competing, individuals struggle against each other in an effort to maximize their own success and minimize the success of others. Robert Greenleaf contends that it is difficult to determine if competitive interests are a natural part of being or if it is acquired. The difficulty in determining is due to a culture that encourages competition from infancy onward.

Individuals who lose a zero-sum competition perceive themselves as less competent and less intrinsically motivated than individuals who win the competition. Competition may also undermine intrinsic motivation when the competitive structure emphasizes an extrinsic approach such as “beat the opponent” or “win at all costs.” In such situations, the decrease in intrinsic motivation is not caused by changes in perceived competence, but rather by the perceived control of the competitive context.

Researchers have contrasted competition with noncompetitive controls, compared different kinds of competition, and examined the effects of winning versus losing in competition. Considered together, the results suggest that competition can have a negative effect on intrinsic motivation but that under certain circumstances (e.g., winning, less controlling competitions) and for some individuals (e.g., individuals high in achievement motivation), competition may actually increase intrinsic motivation.

When positioned in a situation where competitive contingencies govern the distribution of rewards, children's evaluation of not only their own performance but also the performance of others is affected. Competitive reward structures have been found to increase social comparison, resulting in ego-enhancing motives at the expense of others following success, self-derogatory motives following failure, and a variety of negatively valued social behaviors.

Whether competing for grades, trophies, or financial rewards, individuals may view their behavior as externally controlled and experience pressure to win. On the other hand, competition can lead individuals to view activities as challenging and opportunities for feedback, making the competition attractive. In addition, individuals may receive positive feedback during the course of competition, which can promote perceived competence. Thus, competition can be a doubleedged sword, with the potential to both undermine intrinsic motivation by being perceived as controlling and enhance intrinsic motivation by providing challenge and positive feedback.

Individual differences might moderate the effects of competition. Individuals high in achievement motivation are those who seek challenge, desire to attain competence, and strive to outdo others. Those low in achievement motivation dislike evaluation and avoid achievement situations. In 1992, J. A. Epstein and Judith Harackiewicz compared competitive and noncompetitive conditions in which all participants outperformed another participant and found that competition undermined task enjoyment for individuals low in achievement motivation but enhanced enjoyment for individuals high in achievement motivation.