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Parenting Young Children
The National Association for the Education of Young Children defines early childhood as ranging from birth to age 8. Parenting practices strongly shape a child's behavior during this time, including from the first days of life. In the first year and a half of life, how often and well parents engage infants and respond to their needs helps define the parent–child attachment. In the second year of life the emerging toddler develops a sense of self. Shortly after self-recognition occurs, toddlers realize that their wishes and desires sometimes differ from those of their mother and father. This initiates the stage sometimes called the “terrible twos” and places a new requirement on parents: to promote toddler compliance and to prevent and respond effectively to noncompliance. The style with which parents do these things over the next several years strongly influences children's character and self-worth.
Parenting Styles
Parenting style reflects the ways in which parents relate to, relay messages to, set rules for, and respond to rule infractions by their children. Psychologist Diana Baumrind of the University of California, Berkeley, has provided the most influential theory of parenting styles in early childhood. She developed her theory by observing, interviewing, and visiting the homes of two large groups of middle-class Caucasian parents and their preschool children. In 1967 Baumrind identified three types of parenting styles: authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive. Researchers later identified a fourth parenting style observed in more extreme and dysfunctional homes, uninvolved, and observed that one could classify much of the behavior within these parenting styles as attempts to either (a) develop and maintain a warm, responsive relationship or (b) assert control over children, teaching lessons about appropriate ways to behave.
Authoritative Parenting
An authoritative style of parenting involves high levels of both warmth/responsiveness and control. Authoritative parents display warmth by attending to their children's needs and responding to their questions. Parents reward children for good choices and positive behavior. Such parents typically provide a structured framework for their children by setting clear guidelines and enforcing these rules. Although a clear hierarchy exists within the home, authoritative parents often encourage the growth of autonomy by allowing children to make choices from an acceptable range of behaviors. Parents typically also explain the rationale behind their rules and expectations.
The authoritative parenting style is associated with healthy social and academic development in children. The structured environment and enforcement of rules likely encourage children to complete their assignments and excel academically. Compared with their same-aged peers, children of authoritative parents display self-confidence in their approach to challenging tasks and, later on, earn better grades in school. The opportunities for
child decision making and openness to hear child opinions that authoritative parents often provide seem to have a positive impact on children's social and emotional development. Children of authoritative parents tend to have higher levels of self-confidence and self-esteem. In addition, due to consistent follow-through in the enforcement of household rules, children of authoritative parents learn at a young age that whining and aggressive behavior do not result in positive outcomes. Instead, children learn to regulate their emotions and try more positive attempts at getting what they want, such as asking nicely and negotiating. Children typically carry these lessons into their peer interactions and have more positive interactions and fewer confrontations and hostile encounters with peers.
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- Learning, Schooling, Culture, and Identity
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- Literacy Education and Diversity
- Māori, Education of
- Mathematics Education and Diversity
- Mexican American Studies/Chicana/o Studies
- Mexican Americans, Education of
- Mexico, Intercultural Universities in
- Microaggressions, Racial
- Middle Eastern Americans, Education of
- Minority Group
- Minority Schooling in Europe
- Model Minorities and the Model Minority Myth
- Multicultural Citizenship
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- Multicultural Counseling
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- Multicultural Education Series
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- Music Education and Diversity
- National Association for Multicultural Education
- Native American Studies
- Nativism in the United States
- New Literacies and Learners From Diverse Communities
- Nomadic Populations in the Middle East, Curriculum for
- Objectivity and Diversity
- Pacific Islander Americans, Education of
- Patriotism, Diversity, and Education
- People of Color
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- Pilipino Cultural Nights
- Positionality and Knowledge Construction
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- Privatization and Minority Student Achievement
- Professional Development for Cultural Competence
- Puerto Rican Americans, Education of
- Puerto Rican Studies
- Race, Ability, and Language, Intersections of
- Race, Gender, and Skin Tone
- Race, Teaching About
- Race and Education
- Race and Human Genome Variation
- Racial/Ethnic Disproportionality in Special Education
- Racialization, Process of
- Racism in Schools
- REACH Center
- Reconciliation, Politics of, and Excluded Groups
- Regents of the University of California v. Bakke: An Academic Issue, a Civil Rights Defeat
- Remembering Brown: Silence, Loss, Rage, and Hope
- Resilience and Efficacy in Urban Schools
- Resiliency, Identity, and Competence
- Roma in Europe, Education of
- Russia, Education of Ethnic Groups
- Russia, Multicultural Education in
- School Discipline, Race, and Ethnicity
- Science Education and Diversity
- Segregation, Desegregation, and Resegregation
- Service Learning, Diversity, and Teacher Education
- Singapore, Education and Ethnic Diversity in
- Social Justice and Education in Europe
- Social Protest and Education
- Social Studies Education and Diversity
- South Africa, Multicultural Education in
- South Asian Americans
- South Asian Muslim Youth in the United States
- Special Education and Students of Color
- Stereotype Threat
- Student Diversity: Clarifying Meanings
- Subtractive Schooling
- Sweden, Multicultural Education in
- Tibetan Diaspora, Education in
- Turkey, Kurdish Education in
- Two-Faced Racism: Whites in the Backstage and Frontstage
- Undergraduate Readiness for Diversity
- United Kingdom, Multicultural Education in
- United Kingdom, Race and Education in
- United States: Educational Inequality
- United States, Intercultural/Intergroup Education in
- United States, Multicultural Education in
- Universal Declaration of Human Rights
- Vietnam, Ethnic Education in
- Vietnamese American Youth
- White Privilege and Education
- Xenophobia and Antidiscrimination in Europe
- Young Men of Color, Educational Experiences of
- Abington School District v. Schempp (1963)
- Anti-Semitism in Schools and Society
- Black Church, Youth, and the Civil Rights Movement
- Christian Privilege in Schools and Society
- Common Schools Movement
- December Dilemma
- Engel v. Vitale (1962)
- Everson v. Board of Education (1947)
- Freedom of Speech, Fundamentalist Schools and
- Hate Crimes, Religion and
- Hate Crimes After September 11, 2001
- Houses of Worship, Terminology for
- Islam in Asian Education
- Islamophobia in U.S. Society and Schools, Recognizing and Countering
- Lemon v. Kurtzman (1971)
- New-England Primer, The
- Pluralism Project, The
- Private Religious Schools (Non-Muslim) in the Middle East
- Religion, Culture, and Education in the United States
- Religion, Curriculum Issues
- Religion, Teaching About in Schools
- Religion, the Courts, and Public Schools
- Religion and Sexuality, Intersections of
- Religion and Teaching in the College Classroom
- Religion in Public School Curricula in the Middle East
- Religious Holidays in U.S. Schools
- Religious Instruction, Religious Symbols, and Prayer in Public Schools in Europe
- Religious Minorities and Religious Schools in Europe
- Religious Orientation and Diversity
- Religious Pluralism
- Separation of Church and State
- Sherbert v. Verner (1963)
- United States, Islamic Schools in
- World's Parliament of Religions, 1893
- Achievement Gap
- Asian American Youth in Poverty
- At-Risk Students
- Cultural Capital
- Cultural Reproduction
- Culture of Poverty
- Digital Divide, Digital Learning, and Equal Access
- Diversity as a Class and Caste Issue
- Dropout
- Educational Stratification
- Empowerment Zones and Student Achievement
- Financial Aid and Access to Higher Education
- First-Generation College Students
- Hawaii, Asian American Hierarchy in
- Homeless Students
- Inequality of Educational Opportunity, Persistence of
- Intergenerational Transmission of Wealth
- Intersectionality of Race, Class, Gender, and Ethnicity
- Low-Income Students, Education of
- Low-Income Youth, Access to Education
- Middle East, Education of Working Children in
- Parental Human Capital and Education
- Private Schools and Equal Educational Opportunity, United States and South Africa
- Social Capital
- Social Class and Education
- Social Class and Gender
- Social Class Privilege and Education
- Social Hierarchy
- Social Reproduction
- Socioeconomic Integration and Segregation
- Suburban Schooling
- Undocumented Immigrants, Children of
- Unequal Childhoods
- United States, Education of Immigrants in
- Urban Underclass
- A WORLD OF DIFFERENCE® Institute
- Activity Theory, Teacher Education, and Diversity
- Administrator/Staff Training and Supervision for Schools With Diverse Student Populations
- Alternative Pathways Into Teaching
- Antiracist Training for Educators
- Bridging Cultures, Teacher Training Project
- Critical Race Theory, Teacher Education, and Diversity
- Culturally Responsive Assessment
- Diversifying the Teacher Workforce
- Diversity and Teacher Education Policy
- Diversity Training for Faculty, Staff, and Administrators
- Dysconscious Racism and Teacher Education
- Early Childhood Education, Teacher Preparation for Diversity in
- Elementary Education, Teacher Preparation for Diversity in
- English Language Learners, Teacher Preparation for Diversity
- Ethnic Diversity in Teacher Education
- Identity Theory, Teacher Education, and Diversity
- Immigrant Populations, Teacher Preparation for Diversity
- Indigenous Populations, Teacher Preparation for Diversity
- Internationalization of Teacher Education
- Literacy, Teacher Preparation for Diversity
- Mathematics, Teacher Preparation for Diversity
- Mentoring, Teacher Preparation Pedagogy
- Multicultural Teacher Education
- REACH Center
- Research on Diversity and Teacher Education
- Rural Schools, Teacher Preparation for Diversity
- School Leadership for Diversity
- Science and Technology, Teacher Preparation for Diversity
- Social Justice and Teacher Education: Issues, Challenges, and a Theory
- Social Justice Teacher Education
- Special Education, Teacher Education, and Diversity
- Students With Special Needs, Teacher Preparation for Diversity
- Teacher Accreditation Programs: Accreditation and Diversity
- Teacher Education in the United States: Approaches to Improvement
- Teacher Educator Preparation for Diversity
- Teacher Preparation for Diversity
- Teacher Preparation for Diversity, History and Social Studies
- Teacher Preparation Pedagogy, Child Study Approach
- Teacher Preparation Pedagogy, Community-Based
- Teacher Preparation Pedagogy, Critical Reflection and
- Teacher Preparation Pedagogy, Practitioner Research
- Urban Schools, Teacher Preparation for Diversity
- White Teachers, Teacher Preparation for Diversity
- Academic Standards
- Achievement Gap
- Achievement Gap and Tracking, International Evidence
- Achievement Tests
- Advanced Placement Tests
- Alternative Assessments
- Aptitude Tests
- Assessment in Special and Inclusive Education
- Attitudes of Preschool Children, Implicit Measures of
- Basic Skills Testing
- Bias, Testing, and Assessment
- Campbell's Law
- Classroom Assessment and Diversity
- English Language Learners, Accommodations for in Testing
- Equity in Assessment
- Flynn Effect
- High-Stakes Testing
- Intelligence Testing
- Merit-Based and Need-Based College Admissions
- Opportunity-to-Learn Standards
- Standardized Testing and Standards
- Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing
- Students With Disabilities, Accommodations for in Testing
- Students With Disabilities, Testing of
- Test Scores, Validity and Validation of
- Testing, Historical Development of
- Testing, Judicial Decisions on
- Testing, State Versus National
- Tests, Translation of
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