Low-Income Students, Education of

Background

The education of low-income students in the United States has reflected varying philosophies about the needs and appropriate supports for children and adolescents with the stressors associated with poverty. In line with changes in other educational programs for students with special needs (such as dual language learners and students with disabilities), program emphases have shifted from providing and then expanding inputs (such as additional or specialized instruction) to accounting for student outcomes (e.g., standardized achievement scores and graduation rates). Educational stances have also changed from remediation of academic deficits to prevention of failure and promotion of academic success. Some of these educational programs have acknowledged [Page 1418]the complexity of issues that poverty entails, and include family, health, and social supports as critical components. Others focus on specific elements that are essential building blocks for academic success, such as reading proficiency or psychosocial well-being. Some of the effective educational programs for low-income students have addressed early intervention, family involvement, instructional and social supports, collaboration with health and social services, professional development, and sustained leadership. While various educational models have been effective in addressing specific developmental stages and particular needs of students from low-income backgrounds, few programs are truly comprehensive and offer the necessary array of effective and sustained approaches throughout students' educational experiences, from preschool through the transition to postsecondary education. Since the 1960s, federal funding has supported various approaches to compensatory education and school improvement to meet the needs of students from low-income backgrounds, with increased accountability requirements for rigorous program design and results.

Living in Poverty

In the United States, the percentage of children and youth who live in poverty has been growing, along with the disproportionality of low-income status across ethnic and racial groups. In 2007, the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES, 2010) reported that 18% of children under age 18 were living in poverty, which was defined as annual income less than $21,027 for a family of four, and that 32% of these children were living with one parent. Higher percentages of African American (35%), American Indian (33%), and Latino (27%) children were living in poverty compared to White (11%) and Asian American (12%) children. Based on 2008 data, Kids Count noted that 27% of children lived in families without a parent who had full-time, year-round work. Child development researchers such as Vonnie McLoyd have articulated poverty-related problems that significantly affect children's overall development, well-being, and learning, such as poor nutrition, inadequate health care, social-emotional stress, and violence exposure.

Educational Access

Lack of early and consistent participation by low-income students in educational programs has been a major concern. This population is characterized by enrollment problems, low attendance, and lack of participation in early prevention, enrichment, and intervention options (such as high-quality pre-schools, talent development, and tutoring). Advocates such as Johnathan Kozol in Savage Inequalities decried the resource and opportunity disparities between high-poverty and high-income neighborhood schools. According to the NCES (2010), 20% of elementary schools and 9% of secondary schools are high-poverty schools (those with 75% or more students eligible for free or reduced-price lunch), with higher absentee rates for low-income students. Inconsistent school attendance disrupts instruction and classroom inclusion, with detrimental effects on students' learning and social adjustment. For example, though early education participation has increased for all children, fewer low-income children are enrolled in high-quality, research-based preschool programs based on models such as HighScope and Abecedarian Early Intervention Project that have documented significant short- and long-term gains in students' school adjustment and achievement, as well as their adult outcomes. The effects of high mobility on student achievement have also been documented in studies of low-income students in elementary schools (e.g., the Chicago Longitudinal Study). At the high school level, adolescents from low-income backgrounds are more likely to drop out of high school. Data from 2007–2008 show the effects of poverty on college enrollment as well, with only 28% of graduates from high-poverty schools attending in comparison to 52% from more affluent schools (NCES, 2010).

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