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Knowledge, Types of
The types of knowledge is a conceptualization developed by James A. Banks to help theorists, researchers, and practitioners better understand the values and assumptions that undergird knowledge claims and to identify the types of knowledge that students should be taught in the school, college, and university curriculum. Banks maintains that knowledge reflects the values, perspectives, and social context of the individuals and groups that create it. He believes that students should learn all types of knowledge as well as how to construct knowledge themselves and how to identify the assumptions and values that underlie the knowledge they create. Positionality is a central concept in Banks's knowledge construction typology. This concept emerged out of feminist scholarship and describes how important aspects of identity such as gender, race, social class, age, religion, and sexual orientation influence the knowledge that scholars construct.
Banks identifies and describes five types of knowledge (see Figure 1):
- personal/cultural knowledge,
- popular knowledge,
- mainstream academic knowledge,
- transformative academic knowledge, and
- pedagogical knowledge.
This conception of knowledge is an ideal-type typology in the Weberian sense. The German sociologist Max Weber pioneered the idea of using typologies to classify social phenomena. His typology of three forms of authority—traditional, rational–legal, and charismatic—is an example. The five categories of the Banks knowledge typology, like the categories in Weber's typology, approximate but do not describe reality in its total complexity. The categories are useful conceptual tools for thinking about knowledge and planning multicultural teaching and learning. Although the categories can be conceptually distinguished, in reality they overlap and are interrelated in a dynamic way.
Figure 1 How the Five Types of Knowledge Are Interrelated
Source: Copyright © 2009 by James A. Banks.
The Types of Knowledge
Personal and Cultural Knowledge
The concepts, explanations, and interpretations that students derive from personal experiences in their homes, families, and community cultures constitute personal and cultural knowledge. The assumptions, perspectives, and insights that students derive from their experiences in their homes and community cultures are used as screens to view and interpret the knowledge and experiences they encounter in school and in other institutions and public sites within the larger society, such as museums and the media.
Research and theory by Signithia Fordham and John U. Ogbu indicate that low-income African American students often experience academic difficulties in school because of the ways that cultural knowledge within their community conflicts with pedagogical knowledge and with school norms and expectations. Fordham and Ogbu also state that the culture of many low-income African American students is oppositional to school culture. These students believe that if they master the knowledge taught in the schools, they will violate fictive kinship norms and run the risk of “acting White.” Fordham states that African American students who become high academic achievers resolve the conflict caused by the interaction of their personal cultural knowledge with the knowledge and norms within the schools by becoming “raceless” or by “ad hocing a culture.”
Personal and cultural knowledge is problematic when it conflicts with scientific ways of validating knowledge, is oppositional to the culture of the school, or challenges the main tenets and assumptions of mainstream academic knowledge. Research by scholars such as Frances Aboud indicates that much of the knowledge about out-groups that students learn from their home and community cultures consists of misconceptions, stereotypes, and inaccurate information. Many students around the world are socialized within communities that are segregated along racial, ethnic, and social-class lines. These youths have few opportunities to learn firsthand about the cultures of people from different racial, ethnic, cultural, religious, and social-class groups.
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- Assimilation and Education in England
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- Preservice and Inservice Diversity Courses
- Racism in Schools
- Refugees, Children of
- Religion, Teaching About in Schools
- Remembering Brown: Silence, Loss, Rage, and Hope
- Resistance Theory
- School Discipline, Race, and Ethnicity
- School-to-Prison Pipeline
- Science Education and Diversity
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- Success for All
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- Third Space and Sociocritical Literacy
- Tracking in U.S. Schools
- Urban Schools: New Teachers
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- Bilingual Charter Schools
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- English as a Second Language, Domestic and International Issues
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- First-Language and Second-Language Learning
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- Language, Speech, and Communication Disorders
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- Language and Education in Asia
- Language and Identity
- Language Assessment
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- Language Proficiency
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- Literacy Education and Diversity
- Literacy Practices in Minority Families and Communities
- Malaysia, Bilingual Education in
- Minority Languages and Protection of National Minorities in Europe
- New Literacies and Learners From Diverse Communities
- Race, Ability, and Language, Intersections of
- Second Language Acquisition
- Second Language Learning
- Second Language Speakers (L2 Users) in the United States
- Two-Way Immersion Education
- Abington School District v. Schempp (1963)
- Affirmative Action
- Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990
- Bilingual Education
- Bilingual Education Policy in the United States
- Brown v. Board of Education (1954)
- Civil Rights Act of 1964
- DREAM Act
- Engel v. Vitale (1962)
- Equal Educational Opportunities Act of 1974
- Everson v. Board of Education (1947)
- GI Bills
- Grutter v. Bollinger (2003)
- Hazelwood School District v. Kuhlmeier (1988)
- Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)
- Lau v. Nichols (1974)
- Lemon v. Kurtzman (1971)
- McKinney Act of 1987
- Milliken v. Bradley I and II (1974, 1977)
- No Child Left Behind Act of 2001
- Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1 (2007)
- Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)
- Plyler v. Doe (1982)
- Pregnancy Discrimination
- Regents of the University of California v. Bakke: An Academic Issue, a Civil Rights Defeat
- Remembering Brown: Silence, Loss, Rage, and Hope
- San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez (1973)
- Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973
- Sexual Harassment
- Sherbert v. Verner (1963)
- Socioeconomic Integration and Segregation
- Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District (1969)
- Title I of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965
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- United States v. Virginia (1996)
- Alternative Admissions Practices
- Asian American Native American Pacific Islander–Serving Institutions (AANAPISI)
- Asian American Studies
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- Athletics and Diversity
- Black Colleges, Founding of
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- Campus Balkanization and Segregation
- Classroom Pedagogy and Diversity in Higher Education
- College Choice
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- Confucianism and Higher Education
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- Diversity Course Requirements in Colleges and Universities
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- Educational Benefits of Diversity
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- Faculty Diversity in Colleges and Universities
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- Free Speech and Diversity
- Gender Issues in Higher Education
- GI Bills
- Grutter v. Bollinger (2003)
- Higher Education, Access to
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- Intercultural Higher Education Campus, Creating the
- International Students in Colleges and Universities
- Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Issues in Higher Education
- Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Students: Teacher Preparation for Diversity
- Linguistically Responsive Teacher Education
- Living Learning Communities
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- Retention and Diversity in Higher Education
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- Undergraduate Readiness for Diversity
- Undocumented Students in Higher Education
- Acculturation
- African American Families and Education
- African American Males, Education of
- African American Students: Creating Excellence
- African American Vernacular English (Ebonics)
- African Americans, Education of
- African Americans, Education of New Immigrant Groups
- African Americans and Gender
- African Caribbean Students, Achievement in U.K. Schools
- African-Centered Education
- Afrocentricity
- Agricultural Education, Diversity in
- Albania, Diversity, Education, and Democratization in
- Amerasian Identity
- American Indian Identity and Education
- American Indians, Education of
- Antiracist and Multicultural Education
- Antiracist Teaching
- Antiracist Training for Educators
- Asian American Native American Pacific Islander–Serving Institutions (AANAPISI)
- Asian American Pedagogy
- Asian American Studies
- Asian American Youth in Poverty
- Asian Americans, Diversity Among
- Asian Americans, Education of
- Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders in Higher Education
- Asian Indigenization of Knowledge
- Assimilation, Segmented
- Association for the Study of African American Life and History
- Australia, Multicultural Education in
- Barrio Youth
- Black Church, Youth, and the Civil Rights Movement
- Black Schools in the Segregated South
- Black Studies
- Black Women's Studies
- Boarding Schools for Ethnic Minorities in Laos
- Brazil, Indigenous Education in
- Brazil, Racial Diversity and Education in
- Business, Diversity, and Education
- Cambodian Americans, Education of
- Canada, Citizenship Education and Multiculturalism in
- Canada, Multicultural Education in
- Center for Multicultural Education
- China, Ethnic Autonomous Regions
- China, Multicultural Education in
- Chinese Parachute Kids
- Citizenship Education and Diversity
- Citizenship Education and Global Migration
- Citizenship Education and Laïcité in France
- Civic Engagement and Diversity
- Civil Rights Act of 1964
- Coleman Report
- Color-Blind Perspective
- Color-Blind Perspective, Research Findings
- Comparative Multicultural Education
- Compensatory Education
- Complex Instruction
- Contact Theory
- Cooperative Learning
- Counseling Children and Adolescents From Diverse Groups
- Courageous Conversations About Race
- Critical Multiculturalism and Education
- Critical Race Theory and Education
- Critical Theory and Multicultural Education
- Cultural Competence and Youth Literature
- Cultural Gifts Movement
- Cultural Identity, Stages of
- Culturally Anchored Liberal Education
- Culturally Responsive Counseling, Hong Kong
- Culturally Responsive Leadership
- Culturally Responsive Pedagogy
- Culturally Responsive Teaching and Special Education
- Culture, Diversity, and Education
- Culture and Learning
- Culture and Learning in Asian Societies
- Curriculum Transformation, Higher Education
- Curriculum Transformation, K–12
- Cyprus, Intercultural Education in
- Democracy, Diversity, and Schooling
- Demographics in the United States, Trends and Developments
- Developmental Education and Ethnic Minorities
- Diversity: A Contested Concept
- Diversity, Exceptionality, and Knowledge Construction
- Diversity and Student Perceptions of Famous Americans
- Diversity in Curricula in the Middle East
- Diversity-Responsive Schools
- Dysconscious Racism and Teacher Education
- Early Childhood Multicultural Education
- Empowerment and Education
- Equity, Educational
- Essentializing Racial and Ethnic Identity
- Ethnic and Cultural Diversity in Education, Historical Perspectives
- Ethnic and Racial Identity, Educational Implications
- Ethnic and Racial Identity Development
- Ethnic Diversity in Teacher Education
- Ethnic Stratification and Diversity
- Ethnic Student Organizations
- Ethnic Studies, Integration Into K–12 Curriculum
- Ethnic Studies, Research on
- Ethnic Studies in Higher Education
- Ethnicity, Persistence of
- Ethnocentrism in Education
- Ethnomathematics
- Filipino Americans and Cultural Maintenance
- Flexible Citizenship
- Funds of Knowledge
- Gender Equity and Diverse Populations
- Germany, Multicultural Education in
- Ghana, Diversity and Education in
- Gifted Education, Diversity, and Underrepresentation
- Globalization and Intercultural Education
- Hawaii, Asian American Hierarchy in
- Hip Hop and Education
- Hispanic-Serving Institutions
- Historically Black Colleges and Universities
- Hmong Americans, Education of
- Holidays, School
- Hong Kong, Education of Ethnic Minorities in
- Hong Kong, Education of South Asians in
- Hong Kong and the United States, Diversity and Education in
- Hong Kong Chinese Students Studying in the United States
- India, Multicultural Education in
- Indian Boarding Schools in the United States
- Indigenous Knowledge and Science Education
- Indigenous Knowledge and Skills
- Indigenous Language Revitalization
- Indigenous Populations, Education of
- Intercultural Communication
- Intercultural Education
- Intercultural Education and Intercultural Learning in Europe
- Intercultural Teacher Training in Europe
- Intergroup Contact and Social Justice
- Intergroup Dialogue
- International Association for Intercultural Education
- Interracial Friendship, Dating, and Marriage
- Intersectionality and Education
- Intersectionality of Race, Class, Gender, and Ethnicity
- Intragroup Diversity
- Iran, Minority Education in
- Islamophobia and Anti-Semitism in Europe, Educational Responses to
- Israel, Arab Education in
- Jencks Report
- Jewish Education in the United States
- Kenya, Education and Diversity in
- Knowledge, Types of
- Language and Identity
- Latin American Families in the United States
- Latino Identity, Philosophy of
- Latinos, Education of
- Latinos, Gender, and Education
- Learning, Schooling, Culture, and Identity
- Lebanon, Diversity and Education in
- Literacy Education and Diversity
- Māori, Education of
- Mathematics Education and Diversity
- Mexican American Studies/Chicana/o Studies
- Mexican Americans, Education of
- Mexico, Intercultural Universities in
- Microaggressions, Racial
- Middle Eastern Americans, Education of
- Minority Group
- Minority Schooling in Europe
- Model Minorities and the Model Minority Myth
- Multicultural Citizenship
- Multicultural Citizenship and Intercultural Education
- Multicultural Counseling
- Multicultural Education, Approaches to Curriculum Reform
- Multicultural Education, Development of: An Eyewitness Account
- Multicultural Education, Dimensions of
- Multicultural Education, Purposes and Goals
- Multicultural Education Policies and Institutionalization Across Nations
- Multicultural Education Series
- Multicultural Special Education
- Multiculturalism and Sociocultural Identity
- Multiethnic Schools, Creating Effective
- Multiracial and Multiethnic Identities
- Multiracial Students in K–12 Schools
- Music Education and Diversity
- National Association for Multicultural Education
- Native American Studies
- Nativism in the United States
- New Literacies and Learners From Diverse Communities
- Nomadic Populations in the Middle East, Curriculum for
- Objectivity and Diversity
- Pacific Islander Americans, Education of
- Patriotism, Diversity, and Education
- People of Color
- Philippines, Education of Ethnic Minorities in
- Pilipino Cultural Nights
- Positionality and Knowledge Construction
- Prejudice and Discrimination
- Prejudice Reduction
- Privatization and Minority Student Achievement
- Professional Development for Cultural Competence
- Puerto Rican Americans, Education of
- Puerto Rican Studies
- Race, Ability, and Language, Intersections of
- Race, Gender, and Skin Tone
- Race, Teaching About
- Race and Education
- Race and Human Genome Variation
- Racial/Ethnic Disproportionality in Special Education
- Racialization, Process of
- Racism in Schools
- REACH Center
- Reconciliation, Politics of, and Excluded Groups
- Regents of the University of California v. Bakke: An Academic Issue, a Civil Rights Defeat
- Remembering Brown: Silence, Loss, Rage, and Hope
- Resilience and Efficacy in Urban Schools
- Resiliency, Identity, and Competence
- Roma in Europe, Education of
- Russia, Education of Ethnic Groups
- Russia, Multicultural Education in
- School Discipline, Race, and Ethnicity
- Science Education and Diversity
- Segregation, Desegregation, and Resegregation
- Service Learning, Diversity, and Teacher Education
- Singapore, Education and Ethnic Diversity in
- Social Justice and Education in Europe
- Social Protest and Education
- Social Studies Education and Diversity
- South Africa, Multicultural Education in
- South Asian Americans
- South Asian Muslim Youth in the United States
- Special Education and Students of Color
- Stereotype Threat
- Student Diversity: Clarifying Meanings
- Subtractive Schooling
- Sweden, Multicultural Education in
- Tibetan Diaspora, Education in
- Turkey, Kurdish Education in
- Two-Faced Racism: Whites in the Backstage and Frontstage
- Undergraduate Readiness for Diversity
- United Kingdom, Multicultural Education in
- United Kingdom, Race and Education in
- United States: Educational Inequality
- United States, Intercultural/Intergroup Education in
- United States, Multicultural Education in
- Universal Declaration of Human Rights
- Vietnam, Ethnic Education in
- Vietnamese American Youth
- White Privilege and Education
- Xenophobia and Antidiscrimination in Europe
- Young Men of Color, Educational Experiences of
- Abington School District v. Schempp (1963)
- Anti-Semitism in Schools and Society
- Black Church, Youth, and the Civil Rights Movement
- Christian Privilege in Schools and Society
- Common Schools Movement
- December Dilemma
- Engel v. Vitale (1962)
- Everson v. Board of Education (1947)
- Freedom of Speech, Fundamentalist Schools and
- Hate Crimes, Religion and
- Hate Crimes After September 11, 2001
- Houses of Worship, Terminology for
- Islam in Asian Education
- Islamophobia in U.S. Society and Schools, Recognizing and Countering
- Lemon v. Kurtzman (1971)
- New-England Primer, The
- Pluralism Project, The
- Private Religious Schools (Non-Muslim) in the Middle East
- Religion, Culture, and Education in the United States
- Religion, Curriculum Issues
- Religion, Teaching About in Schools
- Religion, the Courts, and Public Schools
- Religion and Sexuality, Intersections of
- Religion and Teaching in the College Classroom
- Religion in Public School Curricula in the Middle East
- Religious Holidays in U.S. Schools
- Religious Instruction, Religious Symbols, and Prayer in Public Schools in Europe
- Religious Minorities and Religious Schools in Europe
- Religious Orientation and Diversity
- Religious Pluralism
- Separation of Church and State
- Sherbert v. Verner (1963)
- United States, Islamic Schools in
- World's Parliament of Religions, 1893
- Achievement Gap
- Asian American Youth in Poverty
- At-Risk Students
- Cultural Capital
- Cultural Reproduction
- Culture of Poverty
- Digital Divide, Digital Learning, and Equal Access
- Diversity as a Class and Caste Issue
- Dropout
- Educational Stratification
- Empowerment Zones and Student Achievement
- Financial Aid and Access to Higher Education
- First-Generation College Students
- Hawaii, Asian American Hierarchy in
- Homeless Students
- Inequality of Educational Opportunity, Persistence of
- Intergenerational Transmission of Wealth
- Intersectionality of Race, Class, Gender, and Ethnicity
- Low-Income Students, Education of
- Low-Income Youth, Access to Education
- Middle East, Education of Working Children in
- Parental Human Capital and Education
- Private Schools and Equal Educational Opportunity, United States and South Africa
- Social Capital
- Social Class and Education
- Social Class and Gender
- Social Class Privilege and Education
- Social Hierarchy
- Social Reproduction
- Socioeconomic Integration and Segregation
- Suburban Schooling
- Undocumented Immigrants, Children of
- Unequal Childhoods
- United States, Education of Immigrants in
- Urban Underclass
- A WORLD OF DIFFERENCE® Institute
- Activity Theory, Teacher Education, and Diversity
- Administrator/Staff Training and Supervision for Schools With Diverse Student Populations
- Alternative Pathways Into Teaching
- Antiracist Training for Educators
- Bridging Cultures, Teacher Training Project
- Critical Race Theory, Teacher Education, and Diversity
- Culturally Responsive Assessment
- Diversifying the Teacher Workforce
- Diversity and Teacher Education Policy
- Diversity Training for Faculty, Staff, and Administrators
- Dysconscious Racism and Teacher Education
- Early Childhood Education, Teacher Preparation for Diversity in
- Elementary Education, Teacher Preparation for Diversity in
- English Language Learners, Teacher Preparation for Diversity
- Ethnic Diversity in Teacher Education
- Identity Theory, Teacher Education, and Diversity
- Immigrant Populations, Teacher Preparation for Diversity
- Indigenous Populations, Teacher Preparation for Diversity
- Internationalization of Teacher Education
- Literacy, Teacher Preparation for Diversity
- Mathematics, Teacher Preparation for Diversity
- Mentoring, Teacher Preparation Pedagogy
- Multicultural Teacher Education
- REACH Center
- Research on Diversity and Teacher Education
- Rural Schools, Teacher Preparation for Diversity
- School Leadership for Diversity
- Science and Technology, Teacher Preparation for Diversity
- Social Justice and Teacher Education: Issues, Challenges, and a Theory
- Social Justice Teacher Education
- Special Education, Teacher Education, and Diversity
- Students With Special Needs, Teacher Preparation for Diversity
- Teacher Accreditation Programs: Accreditation and Diversity
- Teacher Education in the United States: Approaches to Improvement
- Teacher Educator Preparation for Diversity
- Teacher Preparation for Diversity
- Teacher Preparation for Diversity, History and Social Studies
- Teacher Preparation Pedagogy, Child Study Approach
- Teacher Preparation Pedagogy, Community-Based
- Teacher Preparation Pedagogy, Critical Reflection and
- Teacher Preparation Pedagogy, Practitioner Research
- Urban Schools, Teacher Preparation for Diversity
- White Teachers, Teacher Preparation for Diversity
- Academic Standards
- Achievement Gap
- Achievement Gap and Tracking, International Evidence
- Achievement Tests
- Advanced Placement Tests
- Alternative Assessments
- Aptitude Tests
- Assessment in Special and Inclusive Education
- Attitudes of Preschool Children, Implicit Measures of
- Basic Skills Testing
- Bias, Testing, and Assessment
- Campbell's Law
- Classroom Assessment and Diversity
- English Language Learners, Accommodations for in Testing
- Equity in Assessment
- Flynn Effect
- High-Stakes Testing
- Intelligence Testing
- Merit-Based and Need-Based College Admissions
- Opportunity-to-Learn Standards
- Standardized Testing and Standards
- Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing
- Students With Disabilities, Accommodations for in Testing
- Students With Disabilities, Testing of
- Test Scores, Validity and Validation of
- Testing, Historical Development of
- Testing, Judicial Decisions on
- Testing, State Versus National
- Tests, Translation of
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