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Ethnic and Racial Identity, Educational Implications
Ethnic and racial identity are closely related but distinct, socially constructed concepts. Ethnic identity is a sense of belonging to a particular ethnic group, in which one shares values, beliefs, traditions, language, and, in some cases, behaviors with others in the group. One's sense of belonging is influenced by interactions with ethnic in-group and out-group members. Racial identity is an aspect of one's self-definition, based on parentage and influenced by physical characteristics, such as skin color; shape of eyes, nose, and lips; and texture of hair. It is important to distinguish identification from categories or classification. Although there are many ethnic and racial classifications or categories into which individuals can be placed based on some outward manifestations, identity signals self-definition in the mind of an individual.
Ethnic and racial identity are important to diversity in education for at least three reasons: First, researchers have found positive correlations between academic success factors and students' explorations of ethnicity and race within the school context. Specific positive effects or benefits of ethnic identity development include a sense of psychological well-being, and positive influence on academic success factors such as attendance, motivation, engagement, and persistence. Second, ignoring ethnic and racial identity in the education can impair the learning of students for whom ethnic and racial identity are important. Third, while not all individuals with unclarified ethnic and racial identities commit hate crimes, federal hate crimes experts have found that unclarified ethnic and racial identities are characteristics in the profiles of perpetrators of hate crimes. This entry summarizes selected major theoretical conceptualizations of ethnic and racial identity and reviews ways in which teachers can be prepared, personally and professionally, to support students' ethnic and racial identities.
Conceptualizations of Ethnic and Racial Identity
A focus of social science research from the beginning of the 20th century, ethnic and racial identity figured prominently and decisively in the landmark Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court case that outlawed de jure segregated schooling in the United States. Social scientists continue to investigate ethnic and racial identity and their potential for improving academic outcomes for students at all levels of schooling.
Most models of ethnic and racial identity describe the development of individuals through stages or changes in status. Some models purport to describe stages or statuses of development that members of any racial or ethnic group experience. Another category of ethnic and racial identity models focuses on people of color. Yet other ethnic and racial identity models are racial or ethnic group specific. Nigrescence, a seminal model of racial identity development, describes the racial identity development of Blacks, moving from a position in which race is unimportant to a recognition of the significance of race personally and socially, accompanied by a commitment to Black people. The White racial identity theory describes a process of abandoning racism and White superiority and developing definitions of Whiteness that recognize the value of all races and that seek to learn from them. The Multidimensional Inventory of Black Identity explains that racial identity is influenced not only by racial centrality but by one's private and public regard for one's racial group. One typology of ethnic identity depicts an individual's movement from a narrow focus on one's ethnic group to an awareness of—and appreciation for—multiple ethnic groups and their contributions to the global society. Ethnic identity scholars have identified an ethnicity-related “crisis” that spurs development from no awareness of ethnicity, through a period of exploration of ethnicity, to a commitment to an ethnic identification.
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- Acculturation
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- African Americans, Education of New Immigrant Groups
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- African Caribbean Students, Achievement in U.K. Schools
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- Afrocentricity
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- American Indian Identity and Education
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- Asian American Native American Pacific Islander–Serving Institutions (AANAPISI)
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- Center for Multicultural Education
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- China, Multicultural Education in
- Chinese Parachute Kids
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- Civic Engagement and Diversity
- Civil Rights Act of 1964
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- Comparative Multicultural Education
- Compensatory Education
- Complex Instruction
- Contact Theory
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- Counseling Children and Adolescents From Diverse Groups
- Courageous Conversations About Race
- Critical Multiculturalism and Education
- Critical Race Theory and Education
- Critical Theory and Multicultural Education
- Cultural Competence and Youth Literature
- Cultural Gifts Movement
- Cultural Identity, Stages of
- Culturally Anchored Liberal Education
- Culturally Responsive Counseling, Hong Kong
- Culturally Responsive Leadership
- Culturally Responsive Pedagogy
- Culturally Responsive Teaching and Special Education
- Culture, Diversity, and Education
- Culture and Learning
- Culture and Learning in Asian Societies
- Curriculum Transformation, Higher Education
- Curriculum Transformation, K–12
- Cyprus, Intercultural Education in
- Democracy, Diversity, and Schooling
- Demographics in the United States, Trends and Developments
- Developmental Education and Ethnic Minorities
- Diversity: A Contested Concept
- Diversity, Exceptionality, and Knowledge Construction
- Diversity and Student Perceptions of Famous Americans
- Diversity in Curricula in the Middle East
- Diversity-Responsive Schools
- Dysconscious Racism and Teacher Education
- Early Childhood Multicultural Education
- Empowerment and Education
- Equity, Educational
- Essentializing Racial and Ethnic Identity
- Ethnic and Cultural Diversity in Education, Historical Perspectives
- Ethnic and Racial Identity, Educational Implications
- Ethnic and Racial Identity Development
- Ethnic Diversity in Teacher Education
- Ethnic Stratification and Diversity
- Ethnic Student Organizations
- Ethnic Studies, Integration Into K–12 Curriculum
- Ethnic Studies, Research on
- Ethnic Studies in Higher Education
- Ethnicity, Persistence of
- Ethnocentrism in Education
- Ethnomathematics
- Filipino Americans and Cultural Maintenance
- Flexible Citizenship
- Funds of Knowledge
- Gender Equity and Diverse Populations
- Germany, Multicultural Education in
- Ghana, Diversity and Education in
- Gifted Education, Diversity, and Underrepresentation
- Globalization and Intercultural Education
- Hawaii, Asian American Hierarchy in
- Hip Hop and Education
- Hispanic-Serving Institutions
- Historically Black Colleges and Universities
- Hmong Americans, Education of
- Holidays, School
- Hong Kong, Education of Ethnic Minorities in
- Hong Kong, Education of South Asians in
- Hong Kong and the United States, Diversity and Education in
- Hong Kong Chinese Students Studying in the United States
- India, Multicultural Education in
- Indian Boarding Schools in the United States
- Indigenous Knowledge and Science Education
- Indigenous Knowledge and Skills
- Indigenous Language Revitalization
- Indigenous Populations, Education of
- Intercultural Communication
- Intercultural Education
- Intercultural Education and Intercultural Learning in Europe
- Intercultural Teacher Training in Europe
- Intergroup Contact and Social Justice
- Intergroup Dialogue
- International Association for Intercultural Education
- Interracial Friendship, Dating, and Marriage
- Intersectionality and Education
- Intersectionality of Race, Class, Gender, and Ethnicity
- Intragroup Diversity
- Iran, Minority Education in
- Islamophobia and Anti-Semitism in Europe, Educational Responses to
- Israel, Arab Education in
- Jencks Report
- Jewish Education in the United States
- Kenya, Education and Diversity in
- Knowledge, Types of
- Language and Identity
- Latin American Families in the United States
- Latino Identity, Philosophy of
- Latinos, Education of
- Latinos, Gender, and Education
- Learning, Schooling, Culture, and Identity
- Lebanon, Diversity and Education in
- Literacy Education and Diversity
- Māori, Education of
- Mathematics Education and Diversity
- Mexican American Studies/Chicana/o Studies
- Mexican Americans, Education of
- Mexico, Intercultural Universities in
- Microaggressions, Racial
- Middle Eastern Americans, Education of
- Minority Group
- Minority Schooling in Europe
- Model Minorities and the Model Minority Myth
- Multicultural Citizenship
- Multicultural Citizenship and Intercultural Education
- Multicultural Counseling
- Multicultural Education, Approaches to Curriculum Reform
- Multicultural Education, Development of: An Eyewitness Account
- Multicultural Education, Dimensions of
- Multicultural Education, Purposes and Goals
- Multicultural Education Policies and Institutionalization Across Nations
- Multicultural Education Series
- Multicultural Special Education
- Multiculturalism and Sociocultural Identity
- Multiethnic Schools, Creating Effective
- Multiracial and Multiethnic Identities
- Multiracial Students in K–12 Schools
- Music Education and Diversity
- National Association for Multicultural Education
- Native American Studies
- Nativism in the United States
- New Literacies and Learners From Diverse Communities
- Nomadic Populations in the Middle East, Curriculum for
- Objectivity and Diversity
- Pacific Islander Americans, Education of
- Patriotism, Diversity, and Education
- People of Color
- Philippines, Education of Ethnic Minorities in
- Pilipino Cultural Nights
- Positionality and Knowledge Construction
- Prejudice and Discrimination
- Prejudice Reduction
- Privatization and Minority Student Achievement
- Professional Development for Cultural Competence
- Puerto Rican Americans, Education of
- Puerto Rican Studies
- Race, Ability, and Language, Intersections of
- Race, Gender, and Skin Tone
- Race, Teaching About
- Race and Education
- Race and Human Genome Variation
- Racial/Ethnic Disproportionality in Special Education
- Racialization, Process of
- Racism in Schools
- REACH Center
- Reconciliation, Politics of, and Excluded Groups
- Regents of the University of California v. Bakke: An Academic Issue, a Civil Rights Defeat
- Remembering Brown: Silence, Loss, Rage, and Hope
- Resilience and Efficacy in Urban Schools
- Resiliency, Identity, and Competence
- Roma in Europe, Education of
- Russia, Education of Ethnic Groups
- Russia, Multicultural Education in
- School Discipline, Race, and Ethnicity
- Science Education and Diversity
- Segregation, Desegregation, and Resegregation
- Service Learning, Diversity, and Teacher Education
- Singapore, Education and Ethnic Diversity in
- Social Justice and Education in Europe
- Social Protest and Education
- Social Studies Education and Diversity
- South Africa, Multicultural Education in
- South Asian Americans
- South Asian Muslim Youth in the United States
- Special Education and Students of Color
- Stereotype Threat
- Student Diversity: Clarifying Meanings
- Subtractive Schooling
- Sweden, Multicultural Education in
- Tibetan Diaspora, Education in
- Turkey, Kurdish Education in
- Two-Faced Racism: Whites in the Backstage and Frontstage
- Undergraduate Readiness for Diversity
- United Kingdom, Multicultural Education in
- United Kingdom, Race and Education in
- United States: Educational Inequality
- United States, Intercultural/Intergroup Education in
- United States, Multicultural Education in
- Universal Declaration of Human Rights
- Vietnam, Ethnic Education in
- Vietnamese American Youth
- White Privilege and Education
- Xenophobia and Antidiscrimination in Europe
- Young Men of Color, Educational Experiences of
- Abington School District v. Schempp (1963)
- Anti-Semitism in Schools and Society
- Black Church, Youth, and the Civil Rights Movement
- Christian Privilege in Schools and Society
- Common Schools Movement
- December Dilemma
- Engel v. Vitale (1962)
- Everson v. Board of Education (1947)
- Freedom of Speech, Fundamentalist Schools and
- Hate Crimes, Religion and
- Hate Crimes After September 11, 2001
- Houses of Worship, Terminology for
- Islam in Asian Education
- Islamophobia in U.S. Society and Schools, Recognizing and Countering
- Lemon v. Kurtzman (1971)
- New-England Primer, The
- Pluralism Project, The
- Private Religious Schools (Non-Muslim) in the Middle East
- Religion, Culture, and Education in the United States
- Religion, Curriculum Issues
- Religion, Teaching About in Schools
- Religion, the Courts, and Public Schools
- Religion and Sexuality, Intersections of
- Religion and Teaching in the College Classroom
- Religion in Public School Curricula in the Middle East
- Religious Holidays in U.S. Schools
- Religious Instruction, Religious Symbols, and Prayer in Public Schools in Europe
- Religious Minorities and Religious Schools in Europe
- Religious Orientation and Diversity
- Religious Pluralism
- Separation of Church and State
- Sherbert v. Verner (1963)
- United States, Islamic Schools in
- World's Parliament of Religions, 1893
- Achievement Gap
- Asian American Youth in Poverty
- At-Risk Students
- Cultural Capital
- Cultural Reproduction
- Culture of Poverty
- Digital Divide, Digital Learning, and Equal Access
- Diversity as a Class and Caste Issue
- Dropout
- Educational Stratification
- Empowerment Zones and Student Achievement
- Financial Aid and Access to Higher Education
- First-Generation College Students
- Hawaii, Asian American Hierarchy in
- Homeless Students
- Inequality of Educational Opportunity, Persistence of
- Intergenerational Transmission of Wealth
- Intersectionality of Race, Class, Gender, and Ethnicity
- Low-Income Students, Education of
- Low-Income Youth, Access to Education
- Middle East, Education of Working Children in
- Parental Human Capital and Education
- Private Schools and Equal Educational Opportunity, United States and South Africa
- Social Capital
- Social Class and Education
- Social Class and Gender
- Social Class Privilege and Education
- Social Hierarchy
- Social Reproduction
- Socioeconomic Integration and Segregation
- Suburban Schooling
- Undocumented Immigrants, Children of
- Unequal Childhoods
- United States, Education of Immigrants in
- Urban Underclass
- A WORLD OF DIFFERENCE® Institute
- Activity Theory, Teacher Education, and Diversity
- Administrator/Staff Training and Supervision for Schools With Diverse Student Populations
- Alternative Pathways Into Teaching
- Antiracist Training for Educators
- Bridging Cultures, Teacher Training Project
- Critical Race Theory, Teacher Education, and Diversity
- Culturally Responsive Assessment
- Diversifying the Teacher Workforce
- Diversity and Teacher Education Policy
- Diversity Training for Faculty, Staff, and Administrators
- Dysconscious Racism and Teacher Education
- Early Childhood Education, Teacher Preparation for Diversity in
- Elementary Education, Teacher Preparation for Diversity in
- English Language Learners, Teacher Preparation for Diversity
- Ethnic Diversity in Teacher Education
- Identity Theory, Teacher Education, and Diversity
- Immigrant Populations, Teacher Preparation for Diversity
- Indigenous Populations, Teacher Preparation for Diversity
- Internationalization of Teacher Education
- Literacy, Teacher Preparation for Diversity
- Mathematics, Teacher Preparation for Diversity
- Mentoring, Teacher Preparation Pedagogy
- Multicultural Teacher Education
- REACH Center
- Research on Diversity and Teacher Education
- Rural Schools, Teacher Preparation for Diversity
- School Leadership for Diversity
- Science and Technology, Teacher Preparation for Diversity
- Social Justice and Teacher Education: Issues, Challenges, and a Theory
- Social Justice Teacher Education
- Special Education, Teacher Education, and Diversity
- Students With Special Needs, Teacher Preparation for Diversity
- Teacher Accreditation Programs: Accreditation and Diversity
- Teacher Education in the United States: Approaches to Improvement
- Teacher Educator Preparation for Diversity
- Teacher Preparation for Diversity
- Teacher Preparation for Diversity, History and Social Studies
- Teacher Preparation Pedagogy, Child Study Approach
- Teacher Preparation Pedagogy, Community-Based
- Teacher Preparation Pedagogy, Critical Reflection and
- Teacher Preparation Pedagogy, Practitioner Research
- Urban Schools, Teacher Preparation for Diversity
- White Teachers, Teacher Preparation for Diversity
- Academic Standards
- Achievement Gap
- Achievement Gap and Tracking, International Evidence
- Achievement Tests
- Advanced Placement Tests
- Alternative Assessments
- Aptitude Tests
- Assessment in Special and Inclusive Education
- Attitudes of Preschool Children, Implicit Measures of
- Basic Skills Testing
- Bias, Testing, and Assessment
- Campbell's Law
- Classroom Assessment and Diversity
- English Language Learners, Accommodations for in Testing
- Equity in Assessment
- Flynn Effect
- High-Stakes Testing
- Intelligence Testing
- Merit-Based and Need-Based College Admissions
- Opportunity-to-Learn Standards
- Standardized Testing and Standards
- Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing
- Students With Disabilities, Accommodations for in Testing
- Students With Disabilities, Testing of
- Test Scores, Validity and Validation of
- Testing, Historical Development of
- Testing, Judicial Decisions on
- Testing, State Versus National
- Tests, Translation of
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