Response, Operational Strategies

Factors Affecting Response

Another factor affecting response is the two event types: self-limiting and unlimited. Self-limiting response has more casualties that might be saved by a faster response, but ultimately the impact has a fixed limit. Generally, this type of event is short and requires a fixed level of response. Examples include hurricanes, tornadoes, and bioattacks using noncommunicable agents like tularemia and anthrax. Unlimited disasters spread spontaneously and indefinitely, and can last from weeks to months. Examples include forest fires and communicable bioweapons such as smallpox, plague, and influenza. They have the ability to spread indefinitely.

The current Federal Response Plan handles limited disasters. The TopOff exercises, which are full-scale exercises in the U.S. Department of Homeland Security's (DHS) Top Officials series, simulated the release of plague in Denver. This was an example of an unlimited disaster. It ended after six days when the Colorado health system experienced a virtual collapse. The Dark Winter exercise that tested a simulated release of smallpox in Oklahoma produced five major lessons: an attack on the United States with biological weapons could threaten vital national security interests; current organizational structures and capabilities are not well suited for managing a biowarfare attack; there is no surge capability in the U.S. healthcare and public health systems; dealing with the media will be a major, immediate challenge for all levels of government; and containing the spread of disease will present significant ethical, political, cultural, operational, and legal challenges.

Response Hierarchy and Strategies

Response team activities and authority is usually determined by several factors: tradition; formalized laws, contracts, or charters; or some combination of tradition and agreements. In advanced-response societies, the roles and responsibilities have been identified and practiced prior to the response. Jurisdictional disputes are rare, and disputes prior to the disaster are usually settled by legislative or judicial procedures, or by informal negotiations. Jurisdictional disputes during response are usually a speedy form of negotiation and falls to the team best able to handle the specific response needs. Advanced-response societies also always have an ultimate authority, such as a county sheriff or the governor of a state or province.

Overall, strategies to response are to split the activities among specialized teams that are well trained to perform specific functions, such as search and rescue, fire, and police. These teams are controlled by team and group leaders who communicate with the emergency operations center (EOC), which has overall responsibility and control over the response activities and allows much more efficient allocation and tracking of resources in order to reduce waste and save lives. In the United States, the command and control of the EOC is governed by the National Incident Management System (NIMS) and uses the Incident Command System (ICS) to control communications and activities. The DHS and Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) Websites have extensive information on these governing documents, and also provide free training in their use. Many other countries have adopted ICS and NIMS, either outright or in similar form, because of their proven effectiveness in the United States.

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