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Schizophrenia and Crime
Schizophrenia is a devastating mental illness, and one of a larger class of psychotic disorders defined by the presence of delusions (false beliefs) and/or hallucinations (sensory perceptions without external sensory input). Schizophrenia may also be characterized by disorganized speech and behavior and by negative symptoms such as social, cognitive, and emotional withdrawal. Sensationalized accounts of dangerous, violent, and criminal behavior committed by schizophrenic persons have proliferated through the popular media; and the assumption of schizophrenia-associated crime and violence has contributed to public fear, stigma, social rejection, and even the denial of services and programmatic funding to schizophrenic individuals (Raine, 2006). In reality, most schizophrenic persons are not criminal or violent. Given this common misperception, a review of the empirical schizophrenia-crime/violence literature—along with proposed explanations for the relationship based in psychological, neurobiological, and social theory—appears timely.
Two converging lines of evidence continue to support a relationship between schizophrenia and crime: First, higher rates of psychosis and schizophrenia are found in criminal or delinquent populations; and second, schizophrenia patients are much more criminal and violent than the general population. In most cases, family or close network members are the victims of severe violent crimes, and most offending is found among young males in early illness stages. Examination of the schizophrenia-crime link began over a century ago with early psychoanalytic proposals and published case histories. This inquiry has progressed through research in different areas, including studies of violence within psychiatric hospital settings, of criminal behavioral histories of mentally ill individuals, and of national registry case linkages.
Schizophrenia and Specific Crime Types
Violent Crimes
Violent schizophrenic crime research has examined a broad range of violence indicators, from assaults in psychiatric hospitals to criminal record violent convictions. Much of what is currently known about schizophrenic violence is based upon studies of newly admitted schizophrenia inpatients, who often experience emotional turmoil along with intense psychotic symptoms (Krakowski, 2005). Forensic inpatient samples indicate that, violent psychotic offenders are often first-time offenders who committed severe physical assaults against intimates. Non-hospitalized schizophrenic persons may engage in the spectrum of violent behaviors observed in the general population, from minor assaults to brutal murders. And limited evidence suggests some schizophrenic and mentally ill murderers may be characterized by specific motivational, behavioral, and emotional characteristics (Häkkänen & Laajasalo, 2006; Nijman et al., 2003).
Property and Drug Crimes
To date, nonviolent or property offending among schizophrenic persons has not been systematically studied, though incidental data indicate that schizophrenic offenders may commit vagrancy crimes and minor thefts for motives other than material gain. Substance use rates among schizophrenic persons are high, possibly representing efforts to use legal and illegal substances to ameliorate psychotic symptoms. Individuals with schizophrenia are more likely than others to abuse substances and be criminal and violent (Douglas & Skeem, 2005).
Sexual Crimes
Sexual crimes appear comparatively rare among schizophrenic persons. Individuals with schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders comprise only small percentages (i.e., 2 to 5 percent) of sexual offender populations (Alish et al., 2007), and they demonstrate reduced proportional rates of sexual offense convictions in comparison to non-mentally ill individuals in case linkage studies. Rare descriptive reports suggest a complex relationship between schizophrenia and sexual offending.
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- The Classical School of Criminology
- The Positivist School of Criminology
- Annotated Further Readings: The Positivist School of Criminology
- Aschaffenburg, Gustav: German Criminology
- Ferri, Enrico: Positivist School
- Garofalo, Raffaele: Positivist School
- Goring, Charles: The English Convict
- Kretschmer, Ernst: Physique and Character
- Lombroso, Cesare: The Criminal Man
- Phrenology
- Quetelet, Adolphe: Explaining Crime Through Statistical and Cartographic Techniques
- Early American Theories of Crime
- Aichhorn, August: Wayward Youth
- Alexander, Franz, and William Healy: Roots of Crime
- Annotated Further Readings: Early American Theories of Crime
- Dugdale, Richard L.: The Jukes
- Eugenics and Crime: Early American Positivism
- Goddard, Henry H.: Feeblemindedness and Delinquency
- Hooton, Earnest A.: The American Criminal
- Insanity and Crime: Early American Positivism
- Parmelee, Maurice
- Sheldon, William H.: Somatotypes and Delinquency
- Biological and Biosocial Theories of Crime
- Alcohol and Violence
- Annotated Further Readings: Biological and Biosocial Theories of Crime
- Brain Abnormalities and Crime
- Ellis, Lee: Evolutionary Neuroandrogenic Theory
- Environmental Toxins Theory
- Eysenck, Hans J.: Crime and Personality
- Fishbein, Diana H.: Biosocial Theory
- Harris, Judith Rich: Why Parents Do Not Matter
- Herrnstein, Richard J., and Charles Murray: Crime and the Bell Curve
- Mednick, Sarnoff A.: Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) Theory
- Neurology and Crime
- Nutrition and Crime
- Prenatal Influences and Crime
- Psychophysiology and Crime
- Schizophrenia and Crime
- Vila, Brian J., Lawrence E. Cohen, and Richard S. Machalek: Evolutionary Expropriative Theory
- Wilson, James Q., and Richard J. Herrnstein: Crime and Human Nature
- XYY Aggression Theory
- Psychological Theories of Crime
- Andrews, D. A., and James Bonta: A Personal, Interpersonal, and Community-Reinforcement (PIC-R) Perspective on Criminal Conduct
- Annotated Further Readings: Psychological Theories of Crime
- Bandura, Albert: Social Learning Theory
- Cognitive Theories of Crime
- Dodge, Kenneth A.: Aggression and a Hostile Attribution Style
- Freudian Theory
- Glueck, Sheldon, and Eleanor Glueck: The Origins of Crime
- Hare, Robert D.: Psychopathy and Crime
- Kohlberg, Lawrence: Moral Development Theory
- Lahey, Benjamin B., and Irwin D. Waldman: Developmental Propensity Model
- Media Violence Effects
- Mental Illness and Crime
- Patterson, Gerald R.: Social Learning, the Family, and Crime
- Raine, Adrian: Crime as a Disorder
- Walters, Glenn D.: Lifestyle Theory
- Yochelson, Samuel, and Stanton E. Samenow: The Criminal Personality
- The Chicago School of Criminology
- Annotated Further Readings: The Chicago School of Criminology
- Burgess, Robert L., and Ronald L. Akers: Differential Association-Reinforcement Theory
- De Fleur, Melvin L., and Richard Quinney: A Reformulation of Sutherland's Differential Association Theory
- Kobrin, Solomon: Neighborhoods and Crime
- Kornhauser, Ruth Rosner: Social Sources of Delinquency
- Sampson, Robert J.: Collective Efficacy Theory
- Shaw, Clifford R., and Henry D. McKay: Social Disorganization Theory
- Shaw, Clifford R.: The Jack-Roller
- Spergel, Irving: Neighborhoods and Delinquent Subcultures
- Steffensmeier, Darrell J., and Jeffery T. Ulmer: The Professional Fence
- Sutherland, Edwin H.: Differential Association Theory and Differential Social Organization
- Sutherland, Edwin H.: The Professional Thief
- Thrasher, Frederick M.: The Gang
- Turner, Ralph H.: Deviant Roles and the Social Construction of Behavior
- Whyte, William Foote: Street Corner Society
- Cultural and Learning Theories of Crime
- Akers, Ronald L.: Social Learning Theory
- Anderson, Elijah: Code of the Street
- Annotated Further Readings: Cultural and Learning Theories of Crime
- Bennett, William J., John J. DiIulio, Jr., and John P. Walters: Moral Poverty Theory
- Matza, David, and Gresham M. Sykes: Subterranean Values and Delinquency
- Miller, Walter B.: Lower-Class Culture Theory of Delinquency
- Peers and Delinquency
- Sellin, Thorsten: Culture Conflict and Crime
- Southern Subculture of Violence Theory
- Wolfgang, Marvin E., and Franco Ferracuti: Subculture of Violence Theory
- Anomie and Strain Theories of Crime and Deviance
- Agnew, Robert: General Strain Theory
- Annotated Further Readings: Anomie and Strain Theories of Crime and Deviance
- Cloward, Richard A., and Lloyd E. Ohlin: Delinquency and Opportunity
- Cloward, Richard A.: The Theory of Illegitimate Means
- Cohen, Albert K.: Delinquent Boys
- Durkheim, Émile: Anomie and Suicide
- Hagan, John, and Bill McCarthy: Mean Streets and Delinquency
- Merton, Robert K.: Social Structure and Anomie
- Messner, Steven F., and Richard Rosenfeld: Institutional-Anomie Theory
- Parsons, Talcott: Aggression in the Western World
- Stinchcombe, Arthur L.: Rebellion in a High School
- Thio, Alex: Relative Deprivation and Deviance
- Control Theories of Crime
- Annotated Further Readings: Control Theories of Crime
- Briar, Scott, and Irving Piliavin: Delinquency, Commitment, and Stake in Conformity
- Gottfredson, Michael R., and Travis Hirschi: Self-Control Theory
- Hagan, John: Power-Control Theory
- Hirschi, Travis: Social Control Theory
- Matza, David: Delinquency and Drift
- Nye, F. Ivan: Family Controls and Delinquency
- Reckless, Walter C.: Containment Theory
- Reiss, Albert J., Jr.: Personal and Social Controls and Delinquency
- Sykes, Gresham M., and David Matza: Techniques of Neutralization
- Tittle, Charles R., David A. Ward, and Harold G. Grasmick: The Capacity and Desire for Self-Control
- Toby, Jackson: Stake in Conformity
- Wells, Edward L., and Joseph H. Rankin: Direct Controls and Delinquency
- Labeling and Interactionist Theories of Crime
- Annotated Further Readings: Labeling and Interactionist Theories of Crime
- Athens, Lonnie: Interaction and Violence
- Becker, Howard S.: Labeling and Deviant Careers
- Chambliss, William J.: The Saints and the Roughnecks
- Cohen, Albert K.: Deviance and Control
- Erikson, Kai T.: Wayward Puritans
- Grounded Theory
- Heimer, Karen, and Ross L. Matsueda: A Theory of Differential Social Control
- Katz, Jack: Seductions of Crime
- Lafree, Gary D., and Christopher Birkbeck: Situational Analysis of Crime
- Lemert, Edwin M.: Primary and Secondary Deviance
- Luckenbill, David F.: Stages in Violence
- Matsueda, Ross L.: Reflected Appraisals and Delinquency
- Matza, David: Becoming Deviant
- Schur, Edwin M.: Radical Non-Intervention and Delinquency
- Spector, Malcolm, and John I. Kitsuse: Constructing Social Problems
- Sudnow, David: Normal Crimes
- Tannenbaum, Frank: The Dramatization of Evil
- Theories of the Criminal Sanction
- Annotated Further Readings: Theories of Criminal Sanction
- Becker, Gary S.: Punishment, Human Capital, and Crime
- Braithwaite, John: Reintegrative Shaming Theory
- Gendreau, Paul, D. A. Andrews, and James Bonta: The Theory of Effective Correctional Intervention
- General Deterrence Theory
- Gibbs, Jack P.: Deterrence Theory
- Incarceration and Recidivism
- McCarthy, Bill, and John Hagan: Danger and Deterrence
- Nagin, Daniel S., and Raymond Paternoster: Individual Differences and Deterrence
- Perceptual Deterrence
- Pogarsky, Greg, and Alex R. Piquero: The Resetting Effect
- Rose, Dina R., and Todd R. Clear: Coerced Mobility Theory
- Sherman, Lawrence W.: Defiance Theory
- Stafford, Mark C., and Mark Warr: Deterrence Theory
- Tyler, Tom R.: Sanctions and Procedural Justice Theory
- Williams, Kirk R., and Richard Hawkins: Deterrence Theory and Non-Legal Sanctions
- Conflict, Radical, and Critical Theories of Crime
- Abolitionism
- Anarchist Criminology
- Annotated Further Readings: Conflict, Radical, and Critical Theories of Crime
- Bonger, Willem: Capitalism and Crime
- Chambliss, William J.: Power, Conflict, and Crime
- Colvin, Mark, and John Pauly: A Structural Marxist Theory of Delinquency
- Colvin, Mark: Coercion Theory
- Convict Criminology
- Cultural Criminology
- Currie, Elliott: The Market Society and Crime
- Gordon, David M.: Political Economy and Crime
- Greenberg, David F.: Age, Capitalism, and Crime
- Left Realism Criminology
- Marx, Karl, and Frederick Engels: Capitalism and Crime
- Peacemaking Criminology
- Postmodern Theory
- Quinney, Richard: Social Transformation and Peacemaking Criminology
- Regoli, Robert M., and John D. Hewitt: Differential Oppression Theory
- Spitzer, Steven: Capitalism and Crime
- Taylor, Ian, Paul Walton, and Jock Young: The New Criminology
- Turk, Austin T.: The Criminalization Process
- Vold, George B.: Group Conflict Theory
- Feminist and Gender-Specific Theories of Crime
- Adler, Freda: Sisters in Crime
- Alarid, Leanne Fiftal, and Velmer S. Burton, Jr.: Gender and Serious Offending
- Annotated Further Readings: Feminist and Gender-Specific Theories of Crime
- Bartusch, Dawn Jeglum, and Ross L. Matsueda: Gender and Reflected Appraisals
- Bottcher, Jean: Social Practices of Gender
- Broidy, Lisa M., and Robert Agnew: A General Strain Theory of Gender and Crime
- Campbell, Anne: Girls in the Gang
- Chesney-Lind, Meda: Feminist Model of Female Delinquency
- Costello, Barbara J., and Helen J. Mederer: A Control Theory of Gender and Crime
- Daly, Kathleen: Women's Pathways to Felony Court
- Freud, Sigmund: The Deviant Woman
- Hagan, John, and Holly Foster: Stress and Gendered Pathways to Delinquency
- Haynie, Dana L.: Contexts of Risk
- Heimer, Karen, and Stacy De Coster: The Gendering of Violent Delinquency
- Klein, Dorie: The Etiology of Female Crime
- Koss, Mary P.: The Prevalence and Sources of Rape
- Lombroso, Cesare: The Female Offender
- Maher, Lisa: Sexed Work
- Messerschmidt, James W.: Masculinities and Crime
- Miller, Jody: Gendered Social Organization Theory
- Miller, Jody: Girls, Gangs, and Gender
- Moore, Joan W.: Homeboys and Homegirls in the Barrio
- Pollak, Otto: The Hidden Female Offender
- Rape Myths and Violence Against Women
- Russell, Diana E. H.: The Politics of Rape
- Schwartz, Martin D., and Victoria L. Pitts: A Feminist Routine Activity Theory
- Simon, Rita J.: Women and Crime
- Simpson, Sally S.: Gender, Class, and Crime
- Smart, Carol: Women, Crime, and Criminology
- Steffensmeier, Darrell J., and Emilie Andersen Allan: A Gendered Theory of Offending
- Steffensmeier, Darrell J.: Organization Properties and Sex Segregation in the Underworld
- Thomas, W. I.: The Unadjusted Girl
- Widom, Cathy Spatz: The Cycle of Violence
- Choice and Opportunity Theories of Crime
- Annotated Further Readings: Choice and Opportunity Theories of Crime
- Brantingham, Patricia L., and Paul J. Brantingham: Environmental Criminology
- Clarke, Ronald V.: Situational Crime Prevention
- Cohen, Lawrence E., and Marcus K. Felson: Routine Activity Theory
- Cook, Philip J.: Supply and Demand of Criminal Opportunities
- Cornish, Derek B., and Ronald V. Clarke: Rational Choice Theory
- Crime Hot Spots
- Decker, Scott H., and Richard T. Wright: Decisions of Street Offenders
- Eck, John E.: Places and the Crime Triangle
- Economic Theory and Crime
- Felson, Marcus K.: Crime and Everyday Life
- Felson, Marcus K.: Crime and Nature
- Hindelang, Michael J., Michael R. Gottfredson, and James Garofalo: Lifestyle Theory
- Jeffery, C. Ray: Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design
- Miethe, Terance D., and Robert F. Meier: An Integrated Theory of Victimization
- Miller, Jody: Gendered Criminal Opportunity
- Newman, Oscar: Defensible Space Theory
- Osgood, D. Wayne, Janet K. Wilson, Jerald G. Bachman, Patrick M. O'Malley, and Lloyd D. Johnston: Routine Activities and Individual Deviant Behavior
- Physical Environment and Crime
- Pogarsky, Greg: Behavioral Economics and Crime
- Sacco, Vincent F., and Leslie W. Kennedy: The Criminal Event Perspective
- Shover, Neal: Great Pretenders
- Stark, Rodney: Deviant Places
- Wikström, Per-Olof H.: Situational Action Theory
- Wilcox, Pamela, Kenneth C. Land, and Scott A. Hunt: Multicontextual Opportunity Theory
- Wortley, Richard: A Revised Situational Crime Prevention Theory
- Macro-Level/Community Theories of Crime
- Annotated Further Readings: Macro-Level/Community Theories of Crime
- Blau, Judith R., and Peter M. Blau: Inequality and Crime
- Bursik, Robert J., Jr., and Harold C. Grasmick: Levels of Control
- Inequality and Crime
- Krivo, Lauren J., and Ruth D. Peterson: Extreme Disadvantage and Crime
- Negotiated Coexistence
- Racial Threat and Social Control
- Sampson, Robert J., and William Julius Wilson: Contextualized Subculture
- Skogan, Wesley G.: Disorder and Decline
- Systemic Model of Social Disorganization
- Wilson, James Q., and George L. Kelling: Broken Windows Theory
- Wilson, William Julius: The Truly Disadvantaged
- Life-Course and Developmental Theories of Crime
- Annotated Further Readings: Life-Course and Developmental Theories of Crime
- Catalano, Richard F., and J. David Hawkins: Social Development Model
- Criminal Career Paradigm
- Farrington, David P.: The Integrated Cognitive Antisocial Potential Theory
- Giordano, Peggy C., and Stephen A. Cernkovich: Cognitive Transformation and Desistance
- Le Blanc, Marc: An Integrated Personal Control Theory of Deviant Behavior
- Life-Course Interdependence
- Loeber, Rolf, and Magda Stouthamer-Loeber: Pathways to Crime
- Maruna, Shadd: Redemption Scripts and Desistance
- Moffitt, Terrie E.: A Developmental Model of Life-Course-Persistent Offending
- Philadelphia Birth Cohorts, The
- Sampson, Robert J., and John H. Laub: Age-Graded Theory of Informal Social Control
- ntegrated Theories of Crime
- Agnew, Robert: Integrated Theory
- Annotated Further Readings: Integrated Theories of Crime
- Bernard, Thomas J., and Jeffrey B. Snipes: Variable-Centered Approach
- Chamlin, Mitchell B., and John K. Cochran: Social Altruism and Crime
- Colvin, Mark, Francis T. Cullen, and Thomas Vander Ven: Coercion, Social Support, and Crime
- Cullen, Francis T.: Social Support and Crime
- Drennon-Gala, Don: Social Support and Delinquency
- Elliott, Delbert S., Suzanne S. Ageton, and Rachelle J. Canter: Integrated Perspective on Delinquency
- England, Ralph W.: A Theory of Middle-Class Delinquency
- Felson, Richard B., and James T. Tedeschi: Social Interactionist Theory of Violence
- Hagan, John, and Bill McCarthy: Social Capital and Crime
- Krohn, Marvin D.: Networks and Crime
- Lafree, Gary D.: Legitimacy and Crime
- Thornberry, Terence P.: Interactional Theory
- Tittle, Charles R.: Control Balance Theory
- Theories of White-Collar and Corporate Crime
- Annotated Further Readings: Theories of White-Collar and Corporate Crime
- Anomie and White-Collar Crime
- Benson, Michael L.: The Collateral Consequences of White-Collar Offending
- Capitalism and White-Collar Crime
- Clinard, Marshall B.: The Black Market
- Cressey, Donald R.: Embezzlement and White-Collar Crime
- Croall, Hazel: Individual Differences and White-Collar Crime
- Geis, Gilbert: Perspectives on White-Collar Crime Scandals
- Green, Stuart P.: Moral Theory of White-Collar Crime
- Individual Differences and White-Collar Crime
- Integrated Theories of White-Collar Crime
- Michalowski, Raymond J., and Ronald C. Kramer: State-Corporate Crime
- Pontell, Henry N., and Kitty Calavita: Explaining the Savings and Loan Scandal
- Rational Choice and White-Collar Crime
- Ross, E. A.: Sin and Society
- Sutherland, Edwin H.: White-Collar Crime
- Vaughan, Diane: The Normalization of Deviance
- Contemporary Gang Theories
- Annotated Further Readings: Contemporary Gang Theories
- Bourgois, Philippe: In Search of Respect
- Gangs and the Underclass
- Horowitz, Ruth, and Gary Schwartz: Honor and Gang Delinquency
- Jankowski, Martin Sanchez: Islands in the Street
- Klein, Malcolm W., and Cheryl L. Maxson: Street Gang Structure and Organization
- Maxson, Cheryl L.: Gang Migration Theorizing
- Short, James F., Jr.: Gangs and Group Processes
- Vigil, James Diego: Multiple Marginality Theory
- Theories of Prison Behavior and Insurgency
- Annotated Further Readings: Theories of Prison Behavior and Insurgency
- Colvin, Mark: Social Sources of the New Mexico Prison Riot
- DiIulio, John J., Jr.: Prison Management and Prison Order
- Giallombardo, Rose: Women in Prison
- Goffman, Erving: Asylums
- Irwin, John, and Donald R. Cressey: Importation Theory
- Kruttschnitt, Candace, and Rosemary Gartner: Women and Imprisonment
- McCorkel, Jill: Gender and Embodied Surveillance
- Prison Insurgency Theory
- Sykes, Gresham M.: Deprivation Theory
- Toch, Hans: Coping in Prison
- Theories of Fear and Concern About Crime
- Altruistic Fear
- Annotated Further Readings: Theories of Fear and Concern About Crime
- Chiricos, Ted: Racial Threat and Fear
- Collective Security/Fear and Loathing
- Ferraro, Kenneth F.: Risk Interpretation Model
- Fisher, Bonnie S., and Jack L. Nasar: Fear Spots
- Lewis, Dan A., and Greta W. Salem: Incivilities and Fear
- Perceptually Contemporaneous Offenses
- Skogan, Wesley G., and Michael G. Maxfield: Coping With Crime
- Stanko, Elizabeth A.: Gender, Fear, and Risk
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