Bernard, Thomas J., and Jeffrey B. Snipes: Variable-Centered Approach

Thomas J. Bernard and Jeffrey B. Snipes's variable-centered approach describes a strategy for constructing an integrated or general theory of crime. It differs in a fundamental way from most recent attempts at constructing integrated theories. Rather than combining existing theories of crime, such as control and social learning theories, it focuses on identifying the major variables that cause crime and describing the relationships between them. This entry begins by describing why Bernard and Snipes prefer this approach. It then describes the variables that should be considered in such an approach and the relationships between them.

Bernard and Snipes (1996, p. 301) believe that “there are too many theories in criminology.” They note that researchers have devoted much effort to testing these theories in an attempt to determine which are true and which are false. But this strategy has not worked, because it is not the case that some theories are true and others are false. Rather, all theories capture part of the truth. Given this fact, it makes sense to combine or integrate these theories. Bernard and Snipes, however, state that efforts to integrate the leading crime theories have not produced satisfactory results. This is because most of the integrations attempt to combine rather abstract theories. Bernard and Snipes state that efforts at integration should instead focus on the concrete variables that cause crime: variables such as economic status and self-control. These variables and the relationships between them can be observed and measured, resulting in a more straightforward and readily testable integration.

Bernard and Snipes then describe the types of variables that should be considered in an integrated theory. In doing so, they draw on existing crime theories. They state that some theories seek to explain the rate and distribution of crime in [Page 95]groups or collectivities (e.g., why some neighborhoods have higher crime rates than others). These structure/process theories focus on the features of the larger social environment that cause crime and the processes by which these features lead to crime. For example, neighborhoods with high rates of poverty have higher levels of crime. This is because people in these neighborhoods are more likely to conclude that crime is the best way to satisfy their needs and desires, since legitimate jobs are scarce and the likelihood of being sanctioned for crime is low. Further, people in these neighborhoods are more likely to justify or approve of crime. It is important to note that structure/process theories state that the people who engage in crime are no different than non-criminals. Rather, they are simply in environments that are conducive to crime.

Bernard and Snipes also state that some theories focus not on the larger social environment, but on the differences between individuals—especially the biological and psychological differences. These individual difference theories state that individuals with certain characteristics are more likely than others to engage in crime, regardless of their environment. For example, individuals who are low in self-control—or the ability to restrain themselves from acting on their immediate impulses and desires—are more likely to engage in crime. Such theories do sometimes acknowledge that the characteristics of individuals are influenced by their immediate social environment, such as the family environment. These theories, however, usually do not give much consideration to the larger social environment. Bernard and Snipes state that the variables identified by these theories should also be considered in the variable-centered approach they advocate.

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