Sociological Theories

Classifying Crime Theories

In the United States, the sociological tradition has long held the dominant perspectives in criminology. Most university criminology courses are hosted by sociology departments, and a large number of criminologists, particularly those interested in theory and research, are trained as sociologists. Considering that the discipline of sociology is a science relying on multiple paradigms, encompassing the study of culture, human learned behavior, and social processes, it should come as no surprise that the sociological contributions to crime theory are associated with an assortment of explanatory models.

Because of the variety and scope of sociological theories of crime, how to classify and organize them has long been an issue among criminologists. Scholars interested in classification have proposed many different criteria for sorting the theories. For example, one way to differentiate between theories is by their level of explanation (referring mainly to the unit of analysis and ultimately to generalizing capability). Are individuals, small groups, classes of individuals, or societies the “units” of study? Those theories generally focusing on individual behaviors, face-to-face interactions, and small group dynamics or social psychological factors are called “micro sociological theories.” Such theories attempt to answer questions such as “What characteristics or behaviors are connected with certain crimes?” and “How do individuals acquire the values, skills, and motivations to commit criminal acts?” Explanations emphasizing the study of large-scale groups, organizations, social systems, and institutional, societal, or cultural dynamics are referred to as “macro sociological theories.” Macro sociological theories are designed not so much to explain variations in individual behavior or small-group characteristics as to account for the fluctuation and distribution of crime rates.

Theories may also be categorized as process oriented or structure oriented. Process-oriented analysis focuses on the social dynamics involved in learning or acquiring patterns of criminal behavior. Process theories usually are on the micro sociological level and consider the question of how people become criminals. Structure-oriented analysis deals with the forms of social organizations and environmental elements that create conditions conducive to crime. Instead of testing “kind-of-people” hypotheses, the structure analyst examines the kinds of places, environments, and institutions that affect crime. Structure-oriented analyses are usually conducted on a macro sociological level that mainly addresses the question of what causes high or low crime rates.

Theories may also be classified as to whether they are based on the consensual model or the conflict model. The consensual model presumes that people can reach a basic agreement over what is right or wrong, good or bad. The social order and laws of the land, while not perfect, are assumed to be in the public interest and must therefore be preserved. Crimes that defy the social order must be eradicated or the rate of their occurrence reduced. Accompanying the consensual view is the idea that criminological research based on the scientific method will uncover the “objective” roots or causes of crime and will point to solutions that may be expressed in the form of policies or prevention programs. Most of the theories comprising the mainstream sociological tradition are premised on the consensual model.

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