Hinduism

Sin and Punishment in Vedic and Classical Hindu Tradition (1500–500 BCE)

Unlike Imperial China, ancient India was only rarely a unified empire. This absence of centralized political rule meant that the state did not rely on Hindu ideas about punishment. Hindu literary tradition developed into a complex system of texts, beginning with the hymn collections known as the four Vedas, which relate basic Hindu concepts. These texts reflect the gradual development of an increasingly sophisticated religious and social philosophy, but frequently the basic key elements are taken for granted and are not explained. They demonstrate the growth of assumptions about mankind and its role in the world, linked to claims about control of individual behavior in the interest of a larger whole—ultimately, the entire cosmos. Making the distinction between the great universal macrocosmic Order (rita) and the intricately connected microcosmic order (dharma) is central to an understanding of all Hindu concepts. An element of dynamism is introduced through the linking concept of karma, which implies that all actions inevitably have visible and invisible consequences within the framework of rita and dharma.

This complex underlying concept of Order/order is not the result of human effort, nor is any particular god primarily credited with its creation (though later theistic forms of Hinduism try to make such claims). The system simply exists, like the sun and the moon; all beings, including gods, are inescapably subject to it and ideally should be conscious of this existing linkage; all human action becomes measured, in some form, against the criteria of this higher Order, which is viewed as a self-supporting equilibrium in a continuous process of readjustment, and not subject to the authority of one divine power. It may be seen as a kind of volatile ecosystem with infinite self-healing capacity. The Hindu gods Varuna and Mitra often are associated with rita, but these gods also serve the higher Order and do not govern it (Day 1982: 29), although they do serve as punishers of violations and have deterrent functions. Order is certain, ultimately regulated outside the human sphere, and at a level beyond human control but closely linked to human activity.

The ancient Vedic literature focuses on the ritualized connections between this higher Order and the human sphere. Performing rituals and sacrifices is seen as a major means of strengthening and upholding cosmic Order, as well as human order. While the Vedic literature is not concerned with guiding humans on how to maintain harmony and peace on earth, the later classical Hindu “religious” literature circumscribes all individual behavior as good or bad, always with an eye on universal concerns. The class of literature called dharmasutra or dharmashastra, in particular, focuses on all aspects of righteousness (dharma), the key term in Hindu culture. The essence of Hinduism, hardly ever explicitly verbalized in such texts, lies precisely in understanding the interlinked nature of an individual's dharma with all other beings or parties within such a cosmic framework of reference. Being Hindu, then, is not so much a matter of belief as of “right action” in the light of cosmic awareness. The actions of a good Hindu should be conducive to the stability of cosmic order and social harmony at the same time.

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