Ethics

Concepts

There are several categories of basic ethical concepts. For example, there are values (e.g., happiness, enlightenment), which are closely tied to moral significance. Conduct that contributes to or detracts from the realization of these values is characterized as either good or bad. Associated with specific values are virtues (e.g., courage, integrity, justice), as well as types of conduct that are considered morally wrong (e.g., murder, lying). It is impossible to give an account of these without reference to some specific—and perhaps controversial—moral framework (consider, for example, blasphemy). The situation is also complicated by the fact that some concepts apply in more than one setting—that is, what is murder morally may not be murder legally. Morality is also characterized by various principles—broadly speaking, statements of acts that should be done or avoided (e.g., Thou shall not kill). Obligations associated with rules are either social (killing is wrong) or personal (one ought to keep one's promises). Finally, for present purposes, certain values are designated as human rights—fundamental and inviolate privileges that individuals possess by virtue of their humanity (life, liberty, etc.). Linked with these are controversies over the status of duties regarding such things as animals and the environment.

Theory

Although some ethical theories view morality as relative, most propose universally acceptable standards for the ways in which people should conduct themselves. [Page 629]There is a distinction to be drawn, however, between impersonal and situational ethics—that is, between standards that hold generally and those that are dependent on a particular relationship or association. A central problem for post-Enlightenment ethical theory has been to accommodate both universal and particular demands.

The classic division in moral theory is between deontology and consequentialism. Broadly speaking, deontological theories seek to locate the rightness or wrongness of acts in features that are intrinsic to them, whereas consequentialist theories assess acts by their impact on some core value such as happiness or well-being. Major deontological theories have been propounded by Thomas Aquinas (natural law theory), Immanuel Kant (the categorical imperative), and Bishop Butler (the deliverances of conscience); consequentialist views have been defended by the utilitarians, notably Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill. Contractarian or conventionalist theories, which see ethics as a product of social agreement, and virtue theories (Aristotle), which focus on the development of character, offer alternative approaches.

Practical and Professional Ethics

Ethical decision making does not always occur as an encounter between two strangers. It also occurs in the context of role relationships—parent and child, judge and defendant, doctor and patient, and so forth. There is considerable debate about whether such relationships entitle one party to act in ways that would otherwise be prohibited to an individual. That is, a doctor may invade one's privacy in ways that others may not, and a police officer may use force that would be improper if used by others; the question is whether such distinctions reflect a morality distinct from common morality. Perhaps these professional entitlements are best viewed as ultimately answerable to the demands of ordinary morality; that is, the conduct must be necessary to the fulfillment of a duty imposed by a role essential to a morally justifiable institution. So, for example, to be ethical, a particular use of police force must be necessary to enforce a statute that serves some legitimate government purpose.

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