Environmental Design

Origins

In response to the shortage of housing following World War II, many housing projects were erected in the United States and Europe. Architect Le Corbusier's (1887–1965) “Radiant City” concept of towers surrounded by park land was a source of inspiration for many of the designs. Unfortunately, the tower blocks proved to be utterly unsuitable for housing families, particularly poor families. Many buildings rapidly degenerated under an onslaught of vandalism, garbage, and crime. Hundreds of these tower blocks have since been torn down, including one of the most infamous complexes, the Pruitt-Igoe housing project in St. Louis, which was demolished a decade after construction.

To make room for these tower blocks, decaying urban neighborhoods had frequently been razed. The old neighborhoods, though physically decaying, had contained vibrant communities and businesses that were destroyed by slum clearance. While many of the inhabitants moved to the new apartments, the communities rarely survived. Although the apartment interiors were usually superior to the inhabitants' previous accommodations, the communal areas deteriorated disastrously, becoming dangerous [Page 625]and unattractive and earning the label of “vertical slums.”

In 1961, Jane Jacobs, a writer with no formal experience in planning, published a book, The Death and Life of Great American Cities, based on her experiences of living in New York's Greenwich Village. This work contained no empirical research, yet it became one of the most influential books on city planning of the century. Jacobs condemned the urban renewal megaprojects popular during the postwar period. She advocated mixed-use urban neighborhoods, arguing that many eyes watching the street deterred criminal activity.

A decade later, Oscar Newman published his theory of “defensible space.” Newman is an architect who specializes in designing and redesigning low-income housing with the aim of reducing criminal and antisocial activities. His concept of defensible space was first published in 1971 and amended in later works. Defensible space “is about the reassignment of areas and of responsibilities—the demarcation of new spheres of influence” (Newman 1996: 3). Instead of being communal, spaces should be clearly demarcated as belonging to an individual dwelling, thus encouraging territorial behavior. Intruders would be less likely to enter the space, and if they did enter, they would be noticed and challenged. Small buildings with a minimum of shared areas and shared entry points are considered by Newman to be more defensible than large anonymous blocks. Newman advocates the use of design to maximize the natural surveillance of public and semipublic areas by residents. Outdoor space, such as gardens and entryways, should be overlooked by windows, and not hidden from the view of passing pedestrians and motorists.

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