Racism

Racial categorization is a central construct within American society and, as such, has had an enduring impact on all levels of social relations. Given the hierarchical social structure within the United States, racism has emerged as a logical outcome of a society based on and structured around race. A growing appreciation of the social and psychological costs associated with racism has led to racism being viewed as an important area of inquiry and intervention for counselors and psychologists.

Racism, a term coined in the 1930s, is centered on the belief that persons can be separated into categories based on physical attributes. Racism is understood to have three fundamental components. First, it is rooted in the belief that perceived group differences can be attributed to fundamental differences in biology (stereotypes); second, racism involves the negative evaluations one has of another racial group relative to one's own (prejudice); and third, racism reflects the unequal treatment of groups (discrimination). Fundamentally, racism involves the presumption that one race is superior over others in areas of aptitude, abilities, intelligence, physical prowess, and/or virtues, and it is exhibited through acts of discrimination and harassment.

Various types of racism include individual, institutional or structural, and cultural or ideological. Individual racism is characterized by one person's treatment toward another based on race, for example, an employer not hiring a qualified individual or a sales clerk not helping a customer. Ideological racism is a perception or worldview that may formulate into a personal theory about individuals belonging to a particular race (e.g., the assumption that all African Americans have inferior intelligence or the assumed superiority of European art forms over other racial groups' artistic expressions). Institutional or structural racism is located within political and economic systems and social institutions such as education and law enforcement. Institutional racism is thought to involve unfair distribution of resources and unequal participation in the above-mentioned systems based on racial categorization. Such discrimination can be seen in a financial institution's practice of consistently providing loans at higher rates of interest to persons of color.