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Personality Theories, Psychodynamic

The set of theories of personality development that are referred to collectively as psychodynamic or psychoanalytic vary dramatically in their specifics, but share a common lineage and several core concepts. Scholars agree that Sigmund Freud, the famous and controversial Austrian neurologist who wrote the first comprehensive theory of personality development, laid the foundation for all subsequent psychoanalytic theories. Similarly, the fundamental principles that tie psychodynamic theories together can be traced back to Freud's theory of psychoanalysis.

Aspects of personality development common to all psychodynamic theories are (1) the existence and importance of the unconscious and (2) the significance of childhood relationships and experiences in shaping personality. Psychodynamic theories are often further categorized according to other features they share, but there is no consensus on how various theories should be grouped. Moreover, many advocates of a psychoanalytic approach contend that, although various factions may disagree on the abstract theory that guides their understanding of personality, their therapeutic techniques or “clinical theories” are much more similar than different. Nevertheless, a common delineation of the major schools of thought is (1) Freudian, (2) ego psychology, (3) object relations theories, and (4) self psychology.

It is appropriate to add a new category to this traditional list to account for theories that have emerged in recent decades. These theories, which will be broadly referred to here as contemporary psychodynamic theories, are reinterpretations, integrations, and expansions of the older theories. They are innovative in that they are informed by contemporary ideas such as systems theory, pluralism, feminism, and social constructivism.

Freudian Theory

Freud's theory of psychoanalysis is also referred to as classical or traditional psychoanalytic theory. Certain components of Freud's comprehensive theory are sometimes also singled out and, although not technically correct, used as if they were synonymous with the whole of Freudian theory. The most common of these are drive theory and structural theory. Drive theory refers to Freud's focus on instinctual drives toward pleasure and aggression as principle motivators of human behavior. Structural theory refers to Freud's initial description of a tripartite configuration of the mind—consisting of id, ego, and superego.

Despite vehement detractors over the past century, Freud's influence has been so great that a basic understanding of his theory is necessary for any student of contemporary Western thought. It is important to remember, however, that psychoanalytic theory has evolved over time, and very few (if any) analysts today would consider themselves strict “Freudians.” Instead, contemporary Freudians maintain much of Freud's theoretical foundation, but also incorporate the advances proposed by numerous followers and dissenters of Freud over the past 100 years.

Freud proposed that the human mind or psyche is primarily unconscious or out of conscious awareness. Moreover, a healthy and mature psyche is comprised of the id, ego, and superego, with the ego orchestrating an appropriate balance of id and superego activity. Freud also described developmental stages whereby infants progress from an id-dominated and superego-less state to a more balanced psyche when the superego forms at 5 or 6 years of age.

The Id

The id is the only psychic structure that is fully present at birth. It translates the organism's needs into essential instinctual drives or wishes that are the primary motivators of behavior. The instincts that play the biggest role in Freud's theory are the drives for life and death, which are often oversimplified as sexual and aggressive drives, respectively. More precisely, however, the life instinct seeks self-preservation and species preservation; the psychic and emotional energy associated with this drive is called libido. Freud theorized that a death drive, a wish for a natural dissolution to an inorganic state, must be programmed into all living things because the natural course of life is death. A primary defense against the anxiety stirred by the death instinct is aggression, which is sometimes even directed at the self (as seen in some forms of depression).

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