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Personality Theories, Cognitive

Cognitive theories of personality focus on the processes of information encoding and retrieval, and the role of expectations, motives, goals, and beliefs in the development of stable personality characteristics. This approach differs from personality theories that emphasize either the conditions within which personality develops (e.g., behavioral theories) or the trait structures that are revealed in those various conditions (e.g., evolutionary and trait theories). As such, cognitive theories of personality are particularly relevant for counseling psychology because of their core assumption that lasting personality change can occur as a result of rational analysis and insight.

Personality theories are often categorized as either nomothetic (i.e., personality is understood in terms of an individual having greater or lesser amounts of traits that are common to all people) or idiographic (i.e., each individual has a unique personality structure and may possess traits that others do not possess). Taking a nomothetic approach, a personality theory can be used to generalize about an individual or to categorize the person. For example, a person can be said to have a particular trait or style. On the other hand, personality theories that take an idiographic approach attempt to describe the specific individual in such a way as to show how this one individual is different from all other individuals. Cognitive theories of personality are both nomothetic and idiographic. Nomothetic theorists have demarcated dimensions of individual difference such as cognitive styles. Idiographic theorists have developed complex descriptions of individuals cognitively embedded within their own life contexts.

General Components of Cognitive Personality Theories

Most cognitive theories of personality focus on the ways in which personal knowledge and judgment are developed. Often this development occurs in a distorted fashion because it is necessary for people to adapt to their environment. Humans desire to be consistent in their beliefs and behaviors so that they can predict the outcome of their actions. They are also motivated to gain social approval from others and to enhance their perception of themselves. This can result from a process of comparing one's self with those of others or a process of comparing what one believes is one's actual self with an imagined ideal self. Cognitive personality theorists have focused their efforts on describing the development of cognitions that explain the world and the individual's concept of self in it, and they have also developed some understanding of variations in cognitive styles that predict individual differences.

History

Early ideas related to cognitive theory can be traced back to the Greek Stoic Epictetus, who claimed that processes of rational judgment were at the basis of all emotion, be it happiness or suffering. He stated that events in and of themselves have no moral or ethical meaning. Moral judgment and choice are the consequences of how people come to interpret and understand events.

At the turn of the 20th century, William James championed the idea that no psychological theory is complete that does not allow for a mechanism by which thought will regulate actions. James emphasized the role of the focus of attention in determining behavior. He also anticipated the concept of cognitive schemata by characterizing the stream of consciousness as anticipating and adapting to current events by comparing current experiences to past experiences.

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