Industrial Revolution

Brief History of Innovations

During this period, an industrial capitalistic consumption culture emerged and various new commodities became available to large parts of the population. Another major consequence of the Industrial Revolution was the industrial and urban refuse problem that had devastating consequences for the majority of the population. For the first time, humans were faced with unprecedented problems of pollution, which required effective and immediate policies. The problems at first were seen merely as an inconvenient annoyance and only later as a serious health risk related to the public and the environmental crisis in general. Consequently, while the Industrial Revolution has been thought of as the major force of social and economic development, during this period excessive production and consumption as well as garbage and pollution resulted in an environmental and refuse problem. Moreover, a consumer revolution took place, and new conceptualizations of hygiene, cleanliness, and public sanitation policy emerged as major social categories. These trends resulted in the application of science to the problems of pollution and waste.

The roots of industrial capitalism in Europe originate in colonialism, the period when exploitation took the form of many new commodities that were widely circulated and traded all over the globe. In the Caribbean, for example, the mass production of sugar was structured in terms of factory culture—with different types of skilled workers divided by age and gender, tight supervision, scheduling, time consciousness, and disciplinary mechanisms—long before such industrial organization was known in Europe.

The Industrial Revolution began with small technological inventions of machinery in the sectors of textiles and metallurgy and effected large production changes in various other sectors. Steam engines, water wheels, and other powered machinery were used for the first time and gradually were spread throughout the colonial empires. Such technologies were improved and gradually incorporated into other spheres of society, such as steamships and trains in the transportation sector. Moreover, during this period the internal combustion engine and electric power generators were invented and widely used. The chemical industry also developed, with new inventions such as sulfuric acid, sodium carbonate, and cement.

The development of production resulted in a new network of transportation that was needed to connect urban trade centers, where most factories were situated, with mines and the areas that provided raw materials. Within a few decades, in the United Kingdom alone, a national network of canals was constructed, along with a more elaborate and efficient plan of roads, and, finally, a large railway system. Similarly, in the United States, steamships were widely used, the railways expanded rapidly, and transatlantic commercial lines were established. Transportation was further developed with the invention of the bicycle and automobile.

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