Social Exclusion

The concept of social exclusion has its roots and most frequent field of application in sociology in general and in welfare studies in particular. As a starting point, it is necessary to define some necessary prerequisites for using social exclusion. The idea of inclusion and integration must take its starting point from a society that has developed toward a differentiated and complex society, as noted by both Niklas Luhmann and Anthony Giddens. Western society is characterized by differentiation, which can be considered as a neutral state of things. Several phenomena related to modern society generate differentiation. Thus, when considering concepts such as integration, inclusion, and exclusion, it is important to ask, inclusion in what or exclusion from what. Inclusion is often interpreted as something positive, and vice versa regarding exclusion. To be excluded from a negative community, based on racism or criminality, for example, can be seen as something positive. For a more explicit and elaborated use of those concepts, they need to be contextualized in some way.

The most common use of social exclusion is when social vulnerability of some kind is addressed. One of the most significant causes for exclusion is lack of financial means. Concepts such as social marginalization and exclusion have been used to describe the societal processes that restrict and deteriorate opportunities to live, work, consume, procure health care, influence politics, and so forth, in accordance with the dominant norms in society.

Since the 1980s, Western societies have undergone changes that have resulted in increasing inequality in several areas. These changes affect marginalized groups, for example, those who are outside the labor market and are dependent on welfare state support to manage their maintenance. Within research on financially vulnerable groups, the concept of poverty has dominated. Inequality has been seen from a vertical or a hierarchical perspective, and income has been a significant target to define the societal position of an individual. This perspective can roughly be described as a Marxian view of society, where the hierarchy in the society is represented by different classes from the upper class down to the lower classes. From the 1980s onward, another interpretation of inequality has developed. This view emphasizes concepts such as establishment, marginalization, inclusion, and exclusion. Society is understood in horizontal terms, focusing on one's position with regard to the established society, whether inside or outside. Income is still significant, but the emphasis on financial poverty has been replaced by a more complex understanding of groups situated in vulnerable and exposed positions. The focus is not just on financial issues but also on life chances and living conditions in other domains, such as opportunities in education, establishment of the labor and housing market, and participation in areas that enable opportunities to influence and change one's own situation.

According to Martin Kronauer, there has been a shift from discussing financially vulnerable groups in terms of poverty to using concepts such as social exclusion. In addition, during the 1980s there was a strong influence of neoliberal ideas in Western societies, which has left visible traces, for example, an increased individualization of the responsibility for welfare and a deregulation and marketization of several welfare services. The idea of society as a market has gained a foothold, and market principles have emerged within several areas. This could be an empirical explanation for theories that focus on exclusion rather than poverty. A reasonable consequence of the increased individualization of responsibility is widening gaps between those who have and those who don't. A more classic analytic view of society, represented by scholars such as Karl Marx, Max Weber, and Émile Durkheim, understands that societies, despite inequalities, are coherent and more or less integrated. Other theories (e.g., Bauman 1998; Luhmann 1996) problematize the image of a coherent society and choose instead to use concepts such as society being inclusive or exclusive.

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