Self-Presentation

Among the many definitions of the self that can be found in the philosophical and sociological literature, the most influential ones are those of William James and George Herbert Mead. James (1890, 291) said that “a man's Self is the sum total of all that he can call his.” Charles Horton Cooley (1902/1964, 182) insisted that the self is “simply any idea, or system of ideas, drawn from the communicative life, that the mind cherishes as its own.” Mead (1934), however, stressed “reflexivity” and argued that the self is the “reflexive objectivation” of one's presence in the world of others.

In these approaches—and in that of many others too—the self is viewed as an object that is constituted conceptually and used by an agent in the management of his or her conduct. Erving Goffman, a follower of these scholars, altered their view and adopted a different strand. Instead of approaching the self as a “concept,” Goffman viewed the self as being “constituted” and “presented” simultaneously to others. Instead of a self that “is,” he developed a notion of a self that “does,” an active and energetic entity that is constantly presenting itself to others using many devices. He borrowed his imagery from the theater and developed the argument that the self “dramatizes” itself to others. Such dramatization of self is achieved by a variety of means. Goffman wrote of the three components of the social front that individuals creatively manipulate: setting, appearance, manner.

Goffman concentrated on the strategic components of “impression management,” the process by which a self is “framed,” giving rise to an actor who comes prepared to attain his or her goals more so than simply to take the role of the other and to modify his or her wants according to the shared meanings that emerge. This does not exclude a real concern for the other, for authenticity, and for moral concerns. However, Goffman (1959, 9) explained, a “veneer of consensus” is often exchanged among individuals, giving the individual the response he or she desires and concealing true feelings. Individuals “temporarily” honor others' claims in exchange for the same courtesy, and to avoid conflict and achieve what Anthony Giddens called “ontological security.”

To begin with, there is the management of appearance: one is seen as a self before he or she is heard, as another dramaturgical sociologist, Gregory Stone, argued, so that clothing—or costuming—becomes important in social life. One uses it to present a self and display the proper “demeanor” and “deference,” to use Goffman's terminology. In all social interactions, an agent must display the right demeanor and show the warranted deference—the honor and respect due to others. With these interaction rituals, one also presents a “face” to others and saves the “face” of others when it is threatened by one move or another.

Selves are presented not only visually but also verbally. Once the visual presentation of self is accomplished, one can continue to present a self through “talk” or “discourse.” From simple response cries to elaborate lectures, talk becomes a calculated performance. Here, again, Goffman took the lead and discussed the form that talk can take in the presentation of self. Others have taken up this line of thinking and elaborated on talk as presentation of self. Robert Perinbanayagam, for instance, has described the way in which grammar, phonology, sign-systems, and logical categorizations are used in what he calls “discursive acts” to constitute and address a self to others. One can, he contends, “speak a self” into presence for others.

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