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Identity Theories

Identity is defined as the cultural, societal, relational, and individual images of self-conception, and this composite identity has group membership, interpersonal, and individual self-reflective implications. Identity is a colorful kaleidoscope with both stable and dynamic characteristics. The study of identity and communication issues is a challenging and yet rewarding enterprise. By understanding how individuals define themselves and how others define them on multiple grounds, persons can communicate with culturally different others with more interpersonal sensitivity and understanding.

Two macro theories of identity that guide the development of this review are Young Yun Kim's 1986 contextual theory of interethnic communication, with a recent update version in 2005, and Henri Tajfel and John C. Turner's 1986 social identity theory of intergroup relations. Young Yun Kim conceptualized cultural identity as both a sociological (or demographic) classification and an individual psychological attribute with a particular group. She uncovered five themes that are relevant to the study of contemporary cultural identity issues from the critical theory perspective to the social science perspective. These include intrapersonal processes, intercultural communication competence, adaptation to a new culture, cultural identity in intercultural contexts, and power inequalities in intercultural settings. While critical theorists emphasize the dominant societal structure that slots co-cultural members along a pecking-order ladder, social science theorists emphasize the power of interindividual identity negotiation process in reframing group membership and personal identity issues.

Henri Tajfel conceptualized an individual's identity as comprised of both social identity and personal identity dimensions on the psychological level. Social identities can include cultural or ethnic membership identity, gender identity, sexual orientation identity, social class identity, or social role identity, to name a few. Personal identities, on the other hand, can include any unique attributes that we associate with our individuated self in comparison with those of others. Both social identity and personal identity dimensions influence our everyday behaviors in a generalized and particularized manner.

Identity Theories: Conceptual Approaches

This section is organized in two sections: identity theories that focus on the interindividual level of analysis and identity theories that focus on the interface of dominant societal practice and individual identity resistance practice. The two camps share a permeable boundary rather than a rigid one: Some key concepts can be located on the borders of both sites.

Interindividual Interactional Approaches

According to Stella Ting-Toomey's identity negotiation (IN) theory, developed in 1986 and updated in 2005, human beings in all cultures desire identity respect in the communication process. However, what constitutes the proper way to show identity respect and consideration varies from one culture to the next. The IN perspective emphasizes particular identity domains in influencing individuals' everyday interactions. Cultural identity salience is defined as the emotional significance that members attach to their sense of belonging or affiliation with the larger national culture. Ethnic identity salience is defined as the subjective allegiance and loyalty to a group—large or small, socially dominant or subordinate—with which one has ancestral links.

The IN theory assumes that human beings in all cultures desire both positive group-based and positive person-based identities in any type of communicative situation. How individuals can enhance identity understanding, respect, and mutual affirmative valuation of the other is the essential concern of this approach. To illustrate, two of the IN theoretical assumptions are posited as follows: (1) The core dynamics of people's group membership identities (e.g., cultural and ethnic memberships) and personal identities (e.g., unique attributes) are formed via symbolic communication with others, and (2) individuals in all cultures or ethnic groups have the basic motivation needs for identity security, inclusion, predictability, connection, and continuity. However, too much emotional security will lead to tight ethnocentrism (i.e., thinking of your own cultural community as the center of the universe), and too much emotional insecurity (or vulnerability) will lead to fear of out-groups or strangers. Identity-support strategies, such as mindful listening and dialogue, and confirmation and empathic inclusion behaviors are some productive moves that can promote quality intergroup relationships.

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