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Sensation Seeking
Sensation seeking is a psychological concept with biological foundations; it has been defined by Marvin Zuckerman (1994) as “the seeking of varied, novel, complex, and intense sensations and experiences, and the willingness to take physical, social, legal, and financial risks for the sake of such experience” (p. 27). Sensation seeking seems to reach its peak for most people during adolescence, rendering it a key concept in the study of media use and effects among younger audiences. Research on media and sensation seeking among children and adolescents has mostly centered in two areas: entertainment and targeted health campaigns.
Measuring Sensation Seeking
Although sensation seeking is almost always measured using self-report techniques, empirical evidence supports the common assumption that sensation seeking is accompanied by higher levels of physiological arousal. More recent theorizing has found high sensation seekers to have a high positivity offset and a low negativity bias. Positivity offset is the degree to which one's appetite system is more active than one's aversive system in a neutral environment. Negativity bias is the speed with which the aversive system responds to negative stimuli of increasing intensity. Usually, although not always, sensation seeking is measured with a version of Zuckerman's Sensation Seeking Scale, which consists of four subscales: experience seeking, thrill and adventure seeking, disinhibition, and boredom susceptibility. However, some scholars criticize this scale, contending, for one thing, that the four subfactors have inconsistent relationships with various media-related factors.
Entertainment Media
Some research in this area has looked at the relationship between sensation seeking and the ways in which adolescents use a particular medium, such as television. Some research claims that young viewers who are very high sensation seekers do not use television, probably because of the medium's inability to truly stimulate and create high levels of arousal.
A large proportion of the research on sensation seeking and entertainment has focused more specifically on what differences exist in media genre preferences between high and low sensation seekers. Studies have found that high sensation seeking is related to consumption of horror (especially for those enjoy watching gory scenes), violent films, heavy metal music, and violent media content and to watching action and music videos, daytime talk shows, stand-up comedy programs, documentaries, and cartoons; on the other side, it is related to watching fewer newscasts and drama series. High sensation seekers also find violent cartoons funnier and action and adventure programs more interesting. Additional research has found that the disinhibition subfactor may be positively related to enjoyment of violent content (except violent drama), but thrill and adventure seeking may be negatively related to enjoyment. In other work, alienation was found to mediate the link between sensation seeking and use of violent media; that is, sensation seeking was related to alienation, which was in turn related to use of violent media.
Further empirical inquiry has examined the moderating effect of sensation seeking in responses to violent media content among adolescents and children. A study found that youth were more aggressive when they were at higher than their normal levels of sensation seeking and at higher than their normal levels of violent media use.
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- Advertising
- Adult Mediation of Advertising Effects
- Advertising, Host Selling and
- Advertising, Purchase Requests and
- Advertising, Sexuality in
- Advertising, Viewer Age and
- Aggression, Advertising and
- Alcohol Advertising, Effects of
- Alcohol Advertising, International
- Branding
- Cigarette Advertising, Effects of
- Cigarette Advertising, History of
- Consumer Development, Phases of
- Consumerism
- Contraceptive Advertising
- Designated Driver Advertising Campaigns
- Federal Communications Commission, Advertising and
- Food Advertising to Children
- Food Advertising, Content in
- Food Advertising, Eating Disorders and
- Food Advertising, Gender, Ethnicity, and Age
- Food Advertising, Influence of
- Food Advertising, International
- Food Advertising, Obesity and
- Food Advertising, Regulation of
- Food and Beverage Advertising in Schools
- Licensing, Merchandising and
- Product Placements, Alcohol
- Product Placements, Cigarettes
- Product Placements, Food
- Promotional Tie-Ins
- Purchase Influence Attempts
- Relationship Marketing
- Schools, Advertising/Marketing in
- Sponsored Educational Material (SEM)
- Tobacco Advertising, International
- Tweens, Advertising Targeting of
- Viral Marketing
- Advocacy Groups
- Action for Children's Television (ACT)
- Advertising Council, The
- American Academy of Pediatrics
- Center for Media Education (CME)
- Children Now
- Children's Advertising Review Unit (CARU)
- Children's Television Charter
- International Clearinghouse on Children, Youth, and Media
- Internet Watch Foundation
- Kaiser Family Foundation
- Media Advocacy
- Media Education Foundation
- Media Matters Campaign
- Motherhood Project
- National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy
- National Commission on Adolescent Sexual Health
- Parents Music Resource Center (PMRC)
- Prix Jeunesse Foundation
- United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child
- White House Office of National Drug Control Policy
- World Summits on Children and Television
- Books and Print Media
- Books for Adolescents
- Books for Children
- Comic Books, Superheroes in
- Comic Strips, Gender Stereotypes in
- Comics, Daily Newspaper
- Gender Roles in Magazines
- Literacy
- Magazines, Adolescent Boys'
- Magazines, Adolescent Girls'
- Magazines, Children's
- Manga (Japanese Comic Books)
- Narrative Stories
- News, Children's Exposure to
- News, Children's Responses to
- Pornography, Magazines
- Reading, History of
- Reading, Impact of TV on
- Reading, Literacy and
- Reading, Patterns of
- Sexual Information, Teen Magazines and
- Zines
- Computers and Electronic Media
- Anime
- Chat Rooms
- Chat Rooms, Social and Linguistic Processes in
- Cognitive Development, Media and
- Cognitive Skills, Computer Use and
- Computer Use in Schools
- Computer Use, Age Differences in
- Computer Use, Gender and
- Computer Use, International
- Computer Use, Rates of
- Computer Use, Socialization and
- Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC)
- Contraceptive Information, Online
- Digital Divide
- Digital Literacy
- E-Commerce
- Electronic Games, Addiction to
- Electronic Games, Age and
- Electronic Games, Cognitive Effects of
- Electronic Games, Cognitive Scripts and
- Electronic Games, Effects of
- Electronic Games, Gender and
- Electronic Games, High-Risk Players of
- Electronic Games, History of
- Electronic Games, International
- Electronic Games, Moral Behavior in
- Electronic Games, Positive Uses of
- Electronic Games, Rates of Use of
- Electronic Games, Types of
- Electronic Games, Violence in
- Email Pen Pals
- Human-Computer Interaction (HCI)
- Instant Messaging
- Internet Bulletin Boards
- Internet Rating Systems
- Internet Relay Chat (IRC)
- Internet Use, Addiction to
- Internet Use, Age and
- Internet Use, Education and
- Internet Use, Gambling in
- Internet Use, Gender and
- Internet Use, HomeNet Study and
- Internet Use, International
- Internet Use, Positive Effects of
- Internet Use, Psychological Effects
- Internet Use, Rates and Purposes of
- Internet Use, Social
- Knowledge Gap
- Language, Impact of the Internet on
- Mobile Telephones
- Multi-User Dungeons/Domains (MUDs)
- Multimedia Toys
- Online Media, Agency and
- Online Relationships
- Personal Web Pages
- Pornography, Internet
- Regulation, Electronic Games
- Regulation, Internet
- Sex, Internet Solicitation of
- Sexual Information, Internet and
- Sticky Marketing
- Virtual Reality
- Webcams
- Websites, Children's
- Zines
- Cross-Cultural Perspectives
- African Americans, Media Effects on
- African Americans, Media Images of
- African Americans, Media Use by
- Anime
- Asia, Media Use in
- China, Media Use in
- Cultural Identity
- Electronic Games, International
- Entertainment-Education, International
- Ethnicity, Race, and Media
- Ethnicity/Race, Media Effects on Identity
- Ethnicity/Race, Stereotyping
- Europe, Media Use in
- European Broadcasting Union (EBU)
- European Comparative Study
- Globalization, Media and
- Immigrants, Media Use by
- India, Media Use in
- Indigenous Media
- Japan, Media in
- Latin America, Media Use in
- Latina/os, Media Effects on
- Latina/os, Media Images of
- Latina/os, Media Use by
- Manga (Japanese Comic Books)
- Native Americans, Media Use by
- Obscenity
- Television, International Viewing Patterns and
- Tobacco Advertising, International
- UNESCO Violence Study
- Youth Culture
- Developmental Stages
- Adolescents, Developmental Needs of, and Media
- Adolescents, Media Portrayals of
- Adolescents, Movie Portrayals of
- Childhood, Media Portrayals of
- Cognitive Development, Media and
- Developmental Differences, Media and
- Family Communication Patterns Model
- Heroes, Identity, and Parasocial Interaction
- Infants and Toddlers, Developmental Needs of
- Infants and Toddlers, Media Exposure of
- Information Processing, Developmental Differences and
- Parenting Styles
- Preschoolers, Media Impact on Developmental Needs of
- School-Age Children, Impact of the Media on
- Teenager, History of
- Tweens, Media Preferences of
- Gender and Sexuality
- Advertising in Girls' Magazines
- Advertising, Gender and
- Body Image in Boys and Young Men
- Body Image in Girls and Young Women
- Boy Bands
- Cartoons, Gender Representation in
- Comic Strips, Gender Stereotypes in
- Computer Use, Gender and
- Contraceptive Advertising
- Contraceptive Information, Online
- Contraceptive Information, Television and
- Electronic Games, Gender and
- Engaged Resistance
- Fathers, Media Portrayals of
- Food Advertising, Gender, Ethnicity, and Age
- Gender Identity Development
- Gender Roles in Magazines
- Gender Roles in Music
- Gender Roles in Television Commercials
- Gender Roles on Television
- Gender, Media Use and
- Hip Hop, Female Performers of
- Hip Hop, Masculinity in
- Hip Hop, Portrayals of Women in
- HIV/AIDS, Media Prevention Programs and
- Internet Use, Gender and
- Magazines, Adolescent Boys'
- Magazines, Adolescent Girls'
- Mothers, Media Portrayals of
- Music Listening, Gender Effects on
- Natural Experiments, Impact on Gender Roles
- Schemas/Scripts, Gender
- Schemas/Scripts, Sexual
- Sex in Television, Content Analysis of
- Sex in Television, Incidence and Themes
- Sex in Television, Perceived Realism of
- Sex, Internet Solicitation of
- Sex, Media Impact on
- Sexual Content, Age and Comprehension of
- Sexual Information, Internet and
- Sexual Information, Teen Magazines and
- Sexual Minorities, Portrayals of
- Sexual Risk and Responsibility, Portrayals of
- Sexualization of Children
- Sexualized Violence
- Soap Operas, Sexuality in
- Media Education
- Adult Mediation Strategies
- Cartoons, Educational
- Commercial Television and Radio in Schools
- Digital Literacy
- Educational Television, Effects of
- Educational Television, History of
- Educational Television, Programming in
- Electronic Games, Positive Uses of
- Entertainment-Education in the United States
- Entertainment-Education, International
- Language Learning, Television and
- Media Education Foundation
- Media Education, Family Involvement in
- Media Education, International
- Media Education, Political Socialization and
- Media Education, Schools and
- Media Literacy Programs
- Media Literacy, Aims and Purposes of
- Media Literacy, Approaches to
- Media Literacy, Key Concepts in
- Natural Experiments, Impact on Creativity and School Achievement
- Sesame Workshop
- Social Learning Theory/Social Cognitive Theory
- Television, Moral Messages on
- Television, Prosocial Content and
- Media Effects
- Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
- Body Image in Boys and Young Men
- Body Image in Children
- Body Image in Girls and Young Women
- Body Image, Ethnicity/Race and
- Child-Centered vs. Media-Centered Perspectives
- Childhood, Media Portrayals of
- Cognitive Development, Media and
- Developmental Differences, Media and
- Divided Attention, Parallel Processing and
- Drug Use, Depictions of
- Drug Use, Prevention of
- Eating Disorders
- Eating Habits, Media Influence on
- Family Environment, Media Effects on
- Fantasy, Media Effects on
- Fear Reactions
- Globalization, Media and
- Imagination, Effects of Television on
- Interactive Media
- Loneliness
- Mean World Syndrome
- Media Celebrities
- Media Education, Political Socialization and
- Media Effects
- Media Effects, Family Interactions and
- Media Effects, History of Research on
- Media Effects, Maltreated Children and
- Media Effects, Models of
- Media, Meanings of
- Natural Experiments, Impact on Community Activities
- Natural Experiments, Impact on Creativity and School Achievement
- Obesity
- Obscenity
- Parasocial Interaction
- Peer Groups, Impact of Media on
- Physiological Arousal
- Television, Moral Messages in
- Media Use
- African Americans, Media Use by
- Asia, Media Use in
- Bedrooms, Media Use in
- Child-Centered vs. Media-Centered Perspectives
- China, Media Use in
- Cognitive Development, Media and
- Depression, Media Use and
- Developmental Differences, Media and
- Divided Attention, Parallel Processing and
- Electronic Media, Children's Use of
- Europe, Media Use in
- Gender, Media Use and
- Globalization, Media and
- Immigrants, Media Use by
- India, Media Use in
- Indigenous Media
- Individual Differences, Media Preferences and
- Information Processing, Active vs. Passive Models of
- Interactive Media
- Japan, Media in
- Latin America, Media Use in
- Latina/os, Media Use by
- Loneliness
- Media Celebrities
- Media Education, Political Socialization and
- Media Effects
- Media Effects, Maltreated Children and
- Media Entertainment
- Media Exposure
- Media Genre Preferences
- Media Journals
- Media, Future of
- Media, Meanings of
- Mood Management Theory
- Multitasking
- Native Americans, Media Use by
- Parasocial Interaction
- Peer Groups, Influences on Media Use of
- Peer Groups, Joint Use of Media in
- Physiological Arousal
- Selectivity
- Sensation Seeking
- Television, Moral Messages on
- Movies
- Adolescents, Movie Portrayals of
- Aggression, Movies and
- Cigarette Use in Television and Movies
- Disney
- Drug Use, Depictions of
- Horror Films
- Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA)
- Movie Viewing, Adolescents'
- Movie Viewing, Children's
- Movies, History of
- Movies, Perceived Realism of
- Movies, Rating Systems and
- Movies, Romantic Love in
- Movies, Sexuality in
- Movies, Substance Use in
- Movies, Violence in
- Pornography, Movies
- Pornography, X-Rated Movies and
- Regulation, Movies
- Music
- Boy Bands
- Cigarette Use, Music Videos and
- Fan Cultures
- Gender Roles in Music
- Hip Hop, Ethnicity/Race in
- Hip Hop, Female Performers of
- Hip Hop, Masculinity in
- Hip Hop, Portrayals of Women in
- Hip Hop, Violence in
- Hip Hop, Youth Culture and
- Music Genres, Dance/House/Techno
- Music Genres, Heavy Metal
- Music Genres, Hip Hop
- Music Genres, History of
- Music Genres, Pop/Rock
- Music Listening, Age Effects on
- Music Listening, Gender Effects on
- Music Listening, Impact of
- Music Listening, Problem Behavior and
- Music Listening, Uses of
- Music Lyrics, Effects of
- Music Lyrics, Music Television and
- Music Videos, Amount of Viewing and
- Music Videos, Effects of
- Peer Groups, File Sharing Among
- Radio, History of
- Radio, International
- Radio, Listeners' Age and Use of
- Raves
- Regulation, Music
- Public Policy
- Advertising, Regulation of
- Anti-Drug Media Campaigns
- Children's Advertising Review Unit (CARU)
- Children's Internet Protection Act of 2000 (CIPA)
- Children's Online Privacy Protection Act of 1998 (COPPA)
- Children's Television Act of 1990
- Children's Television Charter
- Designated Driver Advertising Campaigns
- European Broadcasting Union (EBU)
- Federal Communications Commission (FCC), Advertising and
- Federal Communications Commission, Deregulation of Children's Programming and
- Federal Trade Commission (FTC)
- First Amendment
- Food Advertising, Regulation of
- Food and Beverage Advertising in Schools
- Internet Blocking
- Internet Content Rating Association (ICRA)
- Internet Rating Systems
- Language, Impact of the Internet on
- Licensing, Merchandising and
- Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA)
- Parental Advisory Labels and Rating Systems
- Pornography, Regulation of
- Pornography, U.S. Public Policy on
- Regulation, Electronic Games
- Regulation, Industry Self-Regulation
- Regulation, Internet
- Regulation, Movies
- Regulation, Music
- Regulation, Radio
- Regulation, Television
- Relationship Marketing
- Sex, Internet Solicitation of
- Telecommunications Act of 1996
- UNESCO Violence Study
- United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child
- V-Chip (Violence Chip)
- White House Office of National Drug Control Policy
- World Summits on Children and Television
- Research Methods
- Experience Sampling Method (ESM)
- Media Journals
- Natural Experiments, Impact on Community Activities
- Natural Experiments, Impact on Creativity and School Achievement
- Natural Experiments, Impact on Gender Roles
- Notel, Unitel, Multitel Study
- Research Methods, Children and
- Research Methods, Content Analyses
- Research Methods, Ethical Issues in
- Research Methods, Ethnography
- Research Methods, Experimental Studies
- Research Methods, Field Studies
- Research Methods, Longitudinal Studies
- Research Methods, Meta-Analyses
- Research Methods, Natural Experiments
- Research Methods, Qualitative
- Research Methods, Questionnaires and Surveys
- Research Methods, Room Touring
- Sex in Television, Content Analysis of
- Violence, Experimental Studies of
- Violence, Longitudinal Studies of
- Violence, Meta-Analyses of
- Violence, Natural Experiments and
- Television
- British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC)
- Cartoons, Educational
- Cartoons, Gender Representation in
- Cartoons, History of
- Cartoons, Violence in
- Cigarette Use in Television and Movies
- Commercial Television and Radio in Schools
- Commercial Television in Schools: Channel One
- Contraceptive Information, Television and
- Coviewing
- Daytime Talk Shows
- Disney
- Drug Use, Depictions of
- Educational Television, Effects of
- Educational Television, History of
- Educational Television, Programming in
- European Comparative Study
- Family Relationships, Television and
- Family, Television Portrayals of
- Fantasy–Reality Distinction
- Forbidden Fruit Hypothesis
- Formal Features
- Gender Roles in Television Commercials
- Gender Roles on Television
- Imagination, Effects of Television on
- Language Learning, Television and
- Music Lyrics, Music Television and
- Music Videos, Amount of Viewing and
- Music Videos, Effects of
- National Television Violence Study
- News, Children's Exposure to
- News, Children's Responses to
- News, Portrayals of Children and Adolescents in
- Notel, Unitel, Multitel Study
- Profanity, Trends in
- Promotional Tie-Ins
- Reading, Impact of TV on
- Reality TV
- Regulation, Television
- Sesame Workshop
- Sex in Television, Content Analysis of
- Sex in Television, Incidence and Themes
- Sex in Television, Perceived Realism of
- Sitcoms
- Soap Operas, Content Analyses of
- Soap Operas, Effects of
- Soap Operas, Sexuality in
- Sports Television
- Surgeon General's Scientific Advisory Committee on Television and Social Behavior
- Talk Shows, Children and Adolescents
- Television morality and Identification with characters on
- Television Rating Systems
- Television Rating Systems, Parental Uses of
- Television Violence
- Television Violence, Susceptibility to
- Television, Addiction to
- Television, Attention and
- Television, History of Children's Programs on
- Television, International Viewing Patterns and
- Television, moral messages on
- Television, Motivations for Viewing of
- Television, Occupational Portrayals on
- Television, Prosocial Behavior and
- Television, Prosocial Content and
- Television, Viewer Age and
- TV-Turnoff Week
- V-Chip (Violence Chip)
- World Summits on Children and Television
- Theories
- Agenda Cutting
- Agenda Setting
- Appreciation Index
- Arousal Theories
- Catharsis Theory
- Child-Centered vs. Media-Centered Perspectives
- Cognitive Script Theory
- Cuing and Priming
- Cultivation Theory
- Desensitization Effects
- Displacement Effect
- Excitation-Transfer Theory
- Externalizing Behavior
- Forbidden Fruit Hypothesis
- Formal Features
- General Aggression Model (GAM)
- Information Processing, Active vs. Passive Models of
- Interactivity
- Intertextuality
- Mean World Syndrome
- Media Practice Model
- Message Interpretation Process Model
- Physiological Arousal
- Priming Theory
- Schema Theory
- Schemas/Scripts, Aggressive
- Schemas/Scripts, Gender
- Schemas/Scripts, Sexual
- Selective Exposure
- Selectivity
- Social Class
- Social Learning Theory/Social Cognitive Theory
- Socialization and Media
- Super-Peer Theory
- Third-Person Effect
- Uses and Gratifications Theory
- Violence and Aggression
- Adult Mediation of Violence Effects
- Aggression, Advertising and
- Aggression, Electronic Games and
- Aggression, Movies and
- Aggression, Music and
- Aggression, Music Videos and
- Aggression, Television and
- Cartoons, Violence in
- Desensitization Effects
- Electronic Games, Violence in
- Fear Reactions
- General Aggression Model (GAM)
- Hip Hop, Violence in
- Movies, Violence in
- Music, Impact of Violence in
- Schemas/Scripts, Aggressive
- Sexualized Violence
- Television Violence
- Television Violence, Susceptibility to
- UNESCO Violence Study
- V-Chip (Violence Chip)
- Violence, Desensitization Toward
- Violence, Effects of
- Violence, Experimental Studies of
- Violence, Extent of and Responses to
- Violence, Historical Trends and
- Violence, Industry Stance on
- Violence, Longitudinal Studies of
- Violence, Marketing and
- Violence, Meta-Analyses of
- Violence, Natural Experiments and
- World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE)
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