Electronic Games, Cognitive Scripts and

The Development of Cognitive Scripts

To understand the concept of cognitive scripts, the concept of knowledge structures must first be defined. Memories of past experiences are stored as knowledge structures, and these structures determine, in part, how people understand and respond to new experiences. A cognitive script is a specific type of knowledge structure, a general representation of how common events typically unfold. It is literally a “script” for behavior, much like a screenplay, which dictates the actions of the actors. Scripts tell us what to expect and what to do in common, frequently encountered situations. Cognitive scripts begin to develop early in childhood, typically between ages 2 and 3, based on children's daily life experiences and their observations. For children, scripts may be developed for such activities as how to behave at a birthday party or in a fast-food restaurant, or how to respond to perceived provocation. Script development continues throughout life. For example, adolescents and adults develop scripts for such common activities as driving a car.

The Activation of Cognitive Scripts

Once a coherent representation is developed, cognitive scripts are stored as knowledge structures in long-term memory. Cognitive scripts then may be activated automatically, without conscious awareness, given the appropriate experiential triggers. A script is activated when related memories are energized through exposure to a new situation that is similar in some way to the existing cognitive script. When a new experience triggers a preexisting script, the individual will either act in accordance with the script or will fantasize about the actions. Acting on or fantasizing about the script (cognitive rehearsal) may ultimately increase the script's accessibility as new associations with similar concepts are built and existing associations are strengthened. Memories and experiences with similar meanings and those that are often activated together develop the strongest associations. Therefore, scripts not only function independently but also may cluster and form a network of behavioral choices. Because a large number of situations can activate this network, particular types of scripts may become chronically accessible, may be more easily triggered, and may be resistant to change. Scripts for aggression are thought to be particularly resistant to change.

Cognitive Scripts and Violent Video Games

In any situation, a number of competing scripts could be triggered and enacted. In addition to relevance to the situation, scripts must be consistent with perceived [Page 268]social norms. Certain social norms, including those regarding the use of aggression and violence, dictate that ethical beliefs guide behavioral choice and thus trigger a process of moral evaluation. Once this process is initiated, higher-order emotions (such as empathy) and knowledge structures (such as attitudes relevant to the situation) are activated. However, desensitization to the ethical implications of aggression and violence could interfere with moral evaluation processes. Violent video games present aggression and violence as justified, without negative consequences, and fun. Repeated exposure to these messages, and practice and reinforcement of violent actions in the game context, may desensitize players to the true impact of violence. It is reported that the army has used video games to desensitize soldiers, and emerging research suggests that children and adolescents with a preference for violent games have lower empathy and stronger proviolence attitudes, suggesting possible desensitization.

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