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Cartoons, Gender Representation in
Research focusing on gender representation in children's cartoons received some notable interest in the 1970s, with some follow-up in the 1990s, but it has not received much attention since that time. Current research indicates that gender stereotypes persist, although female characters are shown more often and in a greater variety of roles.
Research in the 1970s
The early research on gender stereotyping in cartoons arose out of the heightened gender consciousness generated by the second wave of the feminist movement. Three such studies were published in the mid-1970s. One of these studies found that many cartoons had only male characters and that this was particularly predominant in “chase-and-pratfall” (Looney Toon–type) cartoons. Typically, those females who did appear needed to be rescued. In “continuing adventure” (superhero) cartoons, females were presented stereo-typically and tended to fall in love at first sight. The few female heroines frequently caused trouble for everyone in their paths. “Teachy-preachy” (Smurflike) cartoons also had more male characters, but the female characters that appeared had more important roles than did the females in other types of cartoons. Overall, female characters were portrayed as less important and less responsible than males. Two other 1974 studies replicated these conclusions about the stereotypical presentation of female characters. One study found that female characters were slender and shapely, and males had 42 different jobs, but females had only 9. Females were never shown in positions of authority, but males were. The male characters were ambitious, competitive, knowledgeable, active, aggressive, sturdy, and bold. Females were passive, submissive, timid, emotional, and affectionate.
Research in the mid-1970s reached similar conclusions, finding that males outnumbered females on Saturday-morning cartoons. The male characters were portrayed in a greater variety of roles and occupations, whereas female characters were portrayed as housewives, mothers, girlfriends, grandmothers, maids, nannies, nurses, teachers, secretaries, waitresses, or witches.
Studies in the 1990s
Following up on this early research was a series of studies published in the 1990s indicating that female cartoon characters were outnumbered by male characters by four or five to one. A 1993 study of diversity in children's television indicated that adult minority females are invisible and that younger minority females, when included, are presented as background characters or filler. Comparing pre- and post-1980 cartoons, Teresa Thompson and Eugenia Zerbinos's 1995 analysis of 175 episodes of 41 different cartoons concluded that male and female characters were shown stereotypically in both eras, although more so in the years prior to 1980. Overall, male characters were given more prominence, appeared more frequently, engaged in more of almost all the coded behaviors, and talked significantly more than did female characters. Males were more independent, assertive, athletic, important, attractive, technical, and responsible; showed more ingenuity; were more frequently the victims of both physical and verbal aggression; asked and answered more questions; expressed more opinions; emphasized task more; bragged more; and ordered and bossed others more. Females were more emotional, warmer, more romantic, affectionate, sensitive, frail, mature, and domestic; and more likely to ask for protection, to emphasize relationships, to be rewarded, to be helpless, and to praise. Male characters were never shown as caregivers and had jobs 31% of the time. Female characters were shown as caregivers 16% of the time but had jobs only 13% of the time. Chase-and-pratfall cartoons were typically more gender-role stereotypical than were teachy-preachy cartoons, and females in continuing adventure cartoons were least stereotypical but also appeared least frequently.
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