Advertising, Exposure to

Children's and youth's exposure to advertising has increased in virtually all media realms over time. Estimates of their exposure to television advertising rose from 20,000 ads per year during the 1970s to more than 40,000 ads per year during the 1990s. Throughout this time, the proportion of products represented and the character demographics in television advertising have remained remarkably stable.

In the early 1970s, a seminal research project by Earle Barcus surveyed and described the nature of television advertising directed toward children. The majority of commercials were categorized into four groups: toys, cereal, candy, and fast food. In the early 1990s, another research team found similar proportions of the amount of product advertisements. Comparable trends were found with seasonal peaks of toy advertisements at the end of the calendar year and in the use of fun and happiness themes associated with the product.

Although gender representations in commercials have been more equitable in recent years than in the past, with the number of boys and girls shown in ads being fairly equal, there are concerns about patterns of roles to which each gender is assigned. Stereotypical portrayals in ads continue; boys tend to be shown acting aggressively, and girls are shown in domestic roles. Voiceovers in commercials directed toward boys tend to use male voices, whereas female voices are used for ads aimed at girls. Depending on how a commercial portrays a product (e.g., boys shown playing with a particular toy), children are influenced in both attitude (i.e., male viewers prefer that particular toy more than girls do) and behavior (i.e., male viewers tend to play with a toy advertised with a boy). A recent study of video game ads in video game magazines revealed that representations of boys outnumbered those of girls three to one, and that more than half of the ads touted violent games, with an average of 2.5 weapons per ad.

Even though neither tobacco nor alcohol can be used legally by children, youth are exposed to persuasive messages about these products. In 2001, youth aged 12 to 20 years saw approximately 245 televised alcohol advertisements. Companies may attempt to target children through the use of animated characters such as the Budweiser frogs in television ads and Joe Camel in print media. Brand recognition studies show that, among some tobacco products, brands may be universally recognized among young children. Similarly, brand recognition increases along with the amount of advertising. Studies have examined youth's exposure to ads for alcohol in magazines. As with television ads, increased exposure to alcohol ads in magazines, although not necessarily intended for youth, relates to youth's increased intentions to drink alcoholic beverages.

Print media, such as magazines, also exert a steady influence on older youth. Studies have documented that 46% to 57% of popular teen girls' magazines are devoted to advertisements. Themes of idealized beauty and sexual suggestion predominate. Advertisements tend to focus on physical appearance, with the overwhelming majority being for clothes, cosmetics, and weight loss programs.

Advertising exposure via newer media such as the Internet is less clear. However, food product marketers now promote Web addresses on product packaging and in television ads directing children to their websites. Once there, youth may engage with advergames—video games where youth interact with a product, such as Dunk N' Slam Oreos. Marketers of such products use advergames as a way to increase children's familiarity with and subsequent preference for particular brands.

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