Structuration

Conceptual Overview and Discussion

Giddens's structuration theory was extensively developed in his book The Constitution of Society. The ambition of structuration theory is to overcome the opposition between functionalism and structuralism on the one hand and interpretive sociology, such as ethnomethodology or phenomenology, on the other. More precisely, Giddens tries to link theories of the individual and theories of structure because he argues that action and structure are two realms of social order are inseparable. Central to structuration theory is the interplay between human action and structure. This interplay is called the theorem of the duality of structure. This duality refers to the constitution of agents and structures. As just noted, Giddens refuses to oppose action and structure because he considers both that action is the outcome of structure and that structure is changed or reproduced through action.

Giddens's theory of action suggests that actors are not “structural dopes” they are knowledgeable about their actions and reflexive on their behavior. By using the term reflexivity, Giddens emphasizes that actors monitor their action, including the flow of their interaction with others. For Giddens, actors know a lot about how society works, because they are part of it. This knowledge about society is implemented through two kinds of consciousness: (1) practical consciousness and (2) discursive consciousness. The most common is practical consciousness. In this case, actors are engaged in routines because they know how to act without consciousness and reflection. On the other hand, they also can act with discursive consciousness. In this situation, actors are able to produce verbal expression about their own action. Because actors know a lot about society, they contribute through their everyday practice to reproduce it. This is why Giddens asserts that the constitution of society is a “skilled accomplishment.” Nevertheless, there is no guarantee that actors have a perfect understanding of the situation, because all human action takes place within a specific context. In consequence, human action can have some unintended consequences. Thus, the constitution of society is not fully mastered by the actors. To grasp the duality, one must to bear in mind that if actors know a lot about society this is because they are informed by the structures they enact.

With the term structuration Giddens expresses this will to conceive structure, not as a frozen reality but as a process linked to ongoing human action. Hence, structure is defined as “rules and resources.” To explain this stance on structure, Giddens gives the example of language. Language is socially structured knowledge composed of generative rules—grammar rules—that are used as resources, to create sentences. Respecting such rules is compulsory to ensure a mutual comprehension between the speakers. This example illustrates [Page 902]Giddens's position that structure is “always both constraining and enabling.” Furthermore, these rules and resources are virtual, which means they exist only in the actors' minds. This point is crucial, because it implies that structure has two characteristics. First, it exists only in the instant of action. Second, it is a memory trace that directs the conduct of knowledgeable human agents. Thus, structure cannot be distinguished from agency. This perspective has a profound implication, because it follows that structure cannot be supported by any physical or material elements, such as technology.

...