Participant Observation

Conceptual Overview and Discussion

Participant observation's roots as a methodological approach lie in social anthropology, where researchers study cultures by closely observing actors, behaviors, and norms. Also used widely in the field of sociology, participant observation was developed further by the Chicago School in the 1920s and 1930s. These researchers became identified with the practice of ethnographic methods, including participant observation.

Participant observation is a key tool in ethnographic investigation, which seeks to describe human interaction and behavior through firsthand accounts and field work. Participant observation is in effect a combination of a wide variety of methods, including observation; informal interviews and/or conversations; analysis of other materials [Page 653]and evidence encountered while in the field; biographies, life histories, and personal accounts and stories of participants; and researcher documentation and diaries. It is associated primarily with the qualitative research approach because it is (a) often exploratory in nature and (b) used when there is a lack of existing empirical evidence about a group of individuals. It can also incorporate quantitative features either in terms of the data collected or analyzed. Because the approach involves the observation of people on a firsthand basis and coming to understand their collective and individual behaviors, norms, and customs, it is necessary for the researcher to carry out extended periods of field work to permit in-depth immersion. Longitudinal and repeated periods of study allow for the collection of greater and more varied data, provide increased opportunities for comparative observations, and enhance the accuracy of data and resultant findings.

There are two main forms of participant observation: (1) covert participant observation and (2) overt participant observation. The former involves posing incognito as a “genuine” member of the social group or making observations about a group in which the researcher is already a member. The latter involves clearly indicating the true identity of the researcher, and usually the purpose of the research, to those who are being observed. Covert participant observation is increasingly rare because of the ethical questions surrounding covert methods and the inherent deception involved. However, proponents of the method argue that under certain circumstances it may be justified, for example, when there is no other way to secure access; when there are concerns about the effect of the researcher's presence; when researchers are interested in contexts where there may be illegal activity, taboo behavior, and suspicion of those in authority; and when investigating misdemeanors as they occur (e.g., bribery, drug taking, sexual harassment in the workplace).

Application

Participant observation has been applied to a variety of contexts and settings. By actually being with the people of interest, novel and firsthand insights are often obtained. This closeness allows the researcher to live and breathe the everyday realities of the social worlds in which they are interested. Early social anthropologists and explorers used participant observation to study remote communities in Africa and Asia. Although originally deployed by social anthropologists interested in non-Western indigenous cultures and communities, participant observation has come to be used in Western society also.

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